关于美国南北战争
用两三句话概括一下以下事件,人物等为什么对美国南北战争重要。（事件的话最好能写出来在那一年发生的。）（最好用英文写出来,中文在翻译一下.）UncleTom"sCabinD...
用两三句话概括一下以下事件,人物等为什么对美国南北战争重要。（事件的话最好能写出来在那一年发生的。）（最好用英文写出来,中文在翻译一下.）
Uncle Tom"s Cabin
Declaration of Sentiments
Seneca Falls Convention
Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address
Gettyburg Address
Emancipation Proclamation
Transcontinental Railroad
Freedman's Bureau
Border states
Plessy vs Ferguson
第13，14，15个修正案
底下的是人物
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Herny Clay
John Calhoun
John Brown
1st 7 President in order
William Lyoyd Garrison
Frederick Douglas
Dred Scott
Harriet Tubman
Ulysses S. Grant
Robert E.Lee
54th Massachusetts
Jefferson Davis
希望大家多多帮忙。。。 展开
Uncle Tom"s Cabin
Declaration of Sentiments
Seneca Falls Convention
Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address
Gettyburg Address
Emancipation Proclamation
Transcontinental Railroad
Freedman's Bureau
Border states
Plessy vs Ferguson
第13，14，15个修正案
底下的是人物
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Herny Clay
John Calhoun
John Brown
1st 7 President in order
William Lyoyd Garrison
Frederick Douglas
Dred Scott
Harriet Tubman
Ulysses S. Grant
Robert E.Lee
54th Massachusetts
Jefferson Davis
希望大家多多帮忙。。。 展开
2个回答
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林肯在1860年美国总统选举获胜引发南卡罗莱那州脱离联邦。到1861年2月，再多六个州脱离。在2月7日，七个州为邦联采纳临时宪法并在蒙哥马里建立首都。战前的2月在华盛顿特区召开的1861和平会议尝试解决危机失败。其余南部各州仍然留在联邦。部分脱离联邦的州夺取在范围内的联邦要塞（但未取得萨姆特堡），总统布坎南抗议，但除尝试补给桑特堡失败外没有作出认真的军事反应。不过，麻萨诸塞州、纽约州及宾夕法尼亚州的州长秘密购入武器及训练军队。
少於一个月后，在1861年3月4日，林肯正式就任美国总统，在他的总统就职会场上，他主张宪法作为一个「更完美的结合」，有别於之前的邦联条例作为一份有约束力合约；并宣称脱离联邦「在法律上无效」。他声称无意入侵南部州份，但将使用武力以维持联邦物业的所有权。他的演说以恢复联邦关系的请求结束。
南部曾经派出代表到华盛顿并愿意为联邦物业付出代价及与美国讨论和平条约。林肯以邦联不是合法政府为由拒绝任何与邦联代表的交涉，而交涉等同承认邦联为一个有主权的政府。
南卡罗莱那州查尔斯顿的萨姆特堡是三个在邦联范围内仍然受联邦控制的要塞之一，而且林肯坚持要守住它。在邦联总统杰佛逊·戴维斯的命令下，邦联政府的皮瑞·波利加德部队在4月12日炮击要塞，迫使要塞投降。北方应林肯向各州的号召派遣部队重夺要塞及保护联邦。在当时叛乱显示的小规模，林肯在90天召集74,000志愿者。在数个月前，部分州长已经慎重地准备了民兵；在次日开始行动。
四个上南方州（田纳西州、阿肯色州、北卡罗莱那州及维吉尼亚州）虽曾经多次拒绝邦联提议，但此时拒绝联邦派遣军队对抗他们的同胞，宣布脱离联邦，并加入邦联。为报答维吉尼亚州，邦联迁都到里奇蒙。那个城市是邦联的标志；一旦失守，邦联将失去法律地位。里奇蒙是一个在迂回曲折的补给线上难以防守的地点。虽然里奇蒙已经深沟高垒，城市的补给被谢尔曼占据亚特兰大削弱并在格兰特包围彼得斯堡及补给里奇蒙的铁路后完全中断。
林肯在1860年美国总统选举获胜引发南卡罗莱那州脱离联邦。到1861年2月，再多六个州脱离。在2月7日，七个州为邦联采纳临时宪法并在蒙哥马里建立首都。战前的2月在华盛顿特区召开的1861和平会议尝试解决危机失败。其余南部各州仍然留在联邦。部分脱离联邦的州夺取在范围内的联邦要塞（但未取得萨姆特堡），总统布坎南抗议，但除尝试补给桑特堡失败外没有作出认真的军事反应。不过，麻萨诸塞州、纽约州及宾夕法尼亚州的州长秘密购入武器及训练军队。
少於一个月后，在1861年3月4日，林肯正式就任美国总统，在他的总统就职会场上，他主张宪法作为一个「更完美的结合」，有别於之前的邦联条例作为一份有约束力合约；并宣称脱离联邦「在法律上无效」。他声称无意入侵南部州份，但将使用武力以维持联邦物业的所有权。他的演说以恢复联邦关系的请求结束。
南部曾经派出代表到华盛顿并愿意为联邦物业付出代价及与美国讨论和平条约。林肯以邦联不是合法政府为由拒绝任何与邦联代表的交涉，而交涉等同承认邦联为一个有主权的政府。
南卡罗莱那州查尔斯顿的萨姆特堡是三个在邦联范围内仍然受联邦控制的要塞之一，而且林肯坚持要守住它。在邦联总统杰佛逊·戴维斯的命令下，邦联政府的皮瑞·波利加德部队在4月12日炮击要塞，迫使要塞投降。北方应林肯向各州的号召派遣部队重夺要塞及保护联邦。在当时叛乱显示的小规模，林肯在90天召集74,000志愿者。在数个月前，部分州长已经慎重地准备了民兵；在次日开始行动。
四个上南方州（田纳西州、阿肯色州、北卡罗莱那州及维吉尼亚州）虽曾经多次拒绝邦联提议，但此时拒绝联邦派遣军队对抗他们的同胞，宣布脱离联邦，并加入邦联。为报答维吉尼亚州，邦联迁都到里奇蒙。那个城市是邦联的标志；一旦失守，邦联将失去法律地位。里奇蒙是一个在迂回曲折的补给线上难以防守的地点。虽然里奇蒙已经深沟高垒，城市的补给被谢尔曼占据亚特兰大削弱并在格兰特包围彼得斯堡及补给里奇蒙的铁路后完全中断。
由於在维吉尼亚州马纳沙斯小撮邦联军队的猛烈抵抗，在1861年7月，在尔温·麦克道威少将率领一次向邦联的行军并进行第一次马纳沙斯之役[5]（第一次牛奔河之役），及后被邦联军将领约瑟夫‧强斯顿及皮瑞·波利加德击退返回华盛顿。这次战役邦联军将领汤玛士·杰克森得到「石墙」的称号，因为他有如石墙般抵御联邦军队。被这次失败所惊醒，及以防更多奴隶州脱离联邦，同年7月25日美国国会通过Crittenden-Johnson Resolution，声称战争是为保存联邦而不是终止奴隶制度。
乔治‧麦克莱伦少将在7月26日接手联邦波多马克军团（他曾当联邦军司令，但其后让亨利·郝列克接替），战争在1862年正式展开。
在总统林肯强烈要求开始进攻行动下，麦克莱伦在1862年春季由里奇蒙东南，约克河与詹姆斯河之间的维吉尼亚半岛入侵维吉尼亚州。虽然麦克莱伦在半岛行动（Peninsula Campaign）[6]中到达里奇蒙大门，约瑟夫‧强斯顿在七松之役（Battle of Seven Pines）阻止他的前进，继后罗伯特·李和部下詹姆斯·隆史崔特、约瑟夫‧强斯顿[7]在七天战役将他击退。北维吉尼亚行动，包括第二次牛奔河之役，均以南方胜利告终。[8]麦克莱伦违反司令郝列克增援约翰‧波普在维吉尼亚州联邦军的命令，令罗伯特·李的邦联军更易打败为数两倍的敌军。
在第二次牛奔河之役的鼓励下，邦联首次入侵北部，9月5日李将军率领北维吉尼亚军团45,000人越过波多马克河进入马里兰州。林肯随后向麦克莱伦归还波普的部队。9月17日麦克莱伦和李在马里兰州夏普斯堡附近安提耶坦之役[9]交战，是美国历史上最血腥的一天。李的军队到最后被制止，在被麦克莱伦歼灭之前回到维吉尼亚州。安提耶坦之役被认为是联邦的胜利，因为它阻止李的北侵并让林肯有机会宣布《解放奴隶宣言》[10]
谨慎的麦克莱伦未能在安提耶坦追击后，他被安伯洛斯·本赛少将接替。本赛很快就在12月13日的弗雷德里克斯堡战役[11]落败，向玛莉高地正面进攻徒劳无功，超过12,000联邦士兵伤亡。战役后本赛被约瑟夫·胡克少将接替。胡克同样不能击败李的军队，虽然数量上与邦联比较超过2比1，他在1863年5月在钱斯勒斯维尔战役[12]遭到羞辱。在6月李的第二次北侵被乔治·米德少将接替。米德在7月1日至7月3日的最血腥的盖茨堡之役[13]打败李，并被认为是整场内战的转捩点。在7月3日的皮克特冲锋亦是邦联军的最后高潮，不单是因为它代表了李将军计划向华盛顿施压的终结，而且控制密西西比河的主要据点维克斯堡在翌日陷落。李军死伤约28,000人（米德军23,000人）。但是林肯不满米德未能拦截李的撤退，在米德非决定性的秋季攻势后，林肯决定转向西部战场一决雌雄。
正当联盟军在东部取得了无数的胜利时，然而他们却在最关键的西部上失败了。联盟军在早期的Pea Ridge战役中被联邦军从密苏里州赶了出去。另外，联盟国的李欧尼达斯·波克（Leonidas Polk）将军在肯塔基州发动的侵入行动，结果也激怒了该州的民众，因此，肯塔基州便成为了联盟国的敌人。
纳许维尔（田纳西州的首府）也於1862年输给了联邦军。自从1862年5月份，密西西比州的第10号岛（Island No. 10）、密苏里州的New Madrid、田纳西州的孟菲斯和路易西安纳州的纽奥良几个南方大城市都被联邦军占领了，从此，联邦军便可在密西西比州的土地上如「入无人之境」一般。只剩下Vicksburg（密西西比州西南部的城市）在整条河的对岸继续与联邦抗拒。
联盟军的布雷斯顿·布瑞格（Braxton Bragg）将军亦在第二次肯塔基州的侵略行动中被联邦军的比尔（Don Carlos Buell）将军，於血腥的培利维尔（Perryvillel）战役中被赶走。数月后又在Stone River战役里被William S. Rosecrans的军团於田纳西州打败。但庆幸的是，联盟军於近田纳西州的边境，乔治亚州里的奇卡牟加战役（battle of Chickamauga）中取得了胜利。因为布雷斯顿·布瑞格将军在这场战役里得到了James Longstreet军团的支援（李将军的东部援军）。尽管联邦的George Henry Thomas军团在那里英勇奋守，最终也只能撤退。
联邦的主要战争策略是来自西部的尤里西斯·辛普森·格兰特（Grant，Ulysses Simpson）所出的谋略，他曾在这次内战中控制了敌军的Donelson和Henry等要塞，和田纳西州的坎伯兰河。巩固了联邦政府对於密西西比州的控制，以及开始了美国内战的转捩点。而且，尤里西斯将军更把联盟军由田纳西州赶了出去，并向联盟国的「心脏」地点进行入侵，那就是乔治亚州的亚特兰大。
对应翻译
The war begins
For more details on this topic, see Battle of Fort Sumter.
Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union. By February 1861, six more Southern states made similar declarations. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington in a failed attempt at resolving the crisis. The remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy. Confederate forces seized most of the federal forts within their boundaries. President Buchanan protested but made no military response aside from a failed attempt to resupply Fort Sumter via the ship Star of the West, which was fired upon by South Carolina forces and turned back before it reached the fort.[68] However, governors in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania quietly began buying weapons and training militia units.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void".[69] He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.[70]
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents on the grounds that the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.[71] However, Secretary of State William Seward engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.[71]
Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, Fort Monroe, Fort Pickens and Fort Taylor were the remaining Union-held forts in the Confederacy, and Lincoln was determined to hold Fort Sumter. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, troops controlled by the Confederate government under P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded the fort with artillery on April 12, forcing the fort's capitulation. Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all of the states to send troops to recapture the forts and to preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days.[72] For months before that, several Northern governors had discreetly readied their state militias; they began to move forces the next day.[73] Liberty Arsenal in Liberty, Missouri was seized eight days after Fort Sumter.
Four states in the upper South (Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Virginia), which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, now refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.[74] The city was the symbol of the Confederacy. Richmond was in a highly vulnerable location at the end of a tortuous Confederate supply line. Although Richmond was heavily fortified, supplies for the city would be reduced by Sherman's capture of Atlanta and cut off almost entirely when Grant besieged Petersburg and its railroads that supplied the Southern capital.
Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861
Main articles: Naval battles of the American Civil War, Union blockade, and Confederate States Navy
1861 cartoon of Scott's "Anaconda Plan"Winfield Scott, the commanding general of the U.S. Army, devised the Anaconda Plan[75] to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan, but overruled Scott's warnings against an immediate attack on Richmond.
In May 1861, Lincoln enacted the Union blockade of all Southern ports, ending regular international shipments to the Confederacy. When violators' ships and cargoes were seized, they were sold and the proceeds given to Union sailors, but the British crews were released. By late 1861, the blockade stopped most local port-to-port traffic. The blockade shut down King Cotton, ruining the Southern economy. British investors built small, fast "blockade runners" that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda, Cuba and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton and tobacco.[76] Shortages of food and other goods triggered by the blockade, foraging by Northern armies, and the impressment of crops by Confederate armies combined to cause hyperinflation and bread riots in the South.[77]
On March 8, 1862, the Confederate Navy waged a fight against the Union Navy when the ironclad CSS Virginia attacked the blockade; against wooden ships she seemed unstoppable but the next day she had to fight the new Union warship USS Monitor in the Battle of the Ironclads.[78] The battle ended in a draw, which was a strategic victory for the Union in that the blockade was sustained. The Confederacy lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port and virtually ended blockade running.
Eastern Theater 1861–1863
For more details on this topic, see Eastern Theater of the American Civil War.
A Union Regimental Fife and Drum CorpsBecause of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas,[79] whereupon they were forced back to Washington, D.C., by Confederate troops under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the nickname of "Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops.[80] Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,[81][82][83] Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson[84] defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[85] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam[84] near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[86] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[87]
Confederate dead behind the stone wall of Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[88] on December 13, 1862, when over twelve thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville[89] in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg[90] (July 1 to July 3, 1863), the bloodiest battle of the war, which is sometimes considered the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often recalled as the high-water mark of the Confederacy, not just because it signaled the end of Lee's plan to pressure Washington from the north, but also because Vicksburg, Mississippi, the key stronghold to control of the Mississippi, fell the following day. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[91] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln decided to turn to the Western Theater for new leadership.
Western Theater 1861–1863
For more details on this topic, see Western Theater of the American Civil War.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[92] Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
Most of the Mississippi was opened to Union traffic with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In May 1862 the Union Navy captured New Orleans[93] without a major fight, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville,[94] although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at liberating Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River[95] in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[96] and the Battle of Vicksburg,[97] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[98] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
少於一个月后，在1861年3月4日，林肯正式就任美国总统，在他的总统就职会场上，他主张宪法作为一个「更完美的结合」，有别於之前的邦联条例作为一份有约束力合约；并宣称脱离联邦「在法律上无效」。他声称无意入侵南部州份，但将使用武力以维持联邦物业的所有权。他的演说以恢复联邦关系的请求结束。
南部曾经派出代表到华盛顿并愿意为联邦物业付出代价及与美国讨论和平条约。林肯以邦联不是合法政府为由拒绝任何与邦联代表的交涉，而交涉等同承认邦联为一个有主权的政府。
南卡罗莱那州查尔斯顿的萨姆特堡是三个在邦联范围内仍然受联邦控制的要塞之一，而且林肯坚持要守住它。在邦联总统杰佛逊·戴维斯的命令下，邦联政府的皮瑞·波利加德部队在4月12日炮击要塞，迫使要塞投降。北方应林肯向各州的号召派遣部队重夺要塞及保护联邦。在当时叛乱显示的小规模，林肯在90天召集74,000志愿者。在数个月前，部分州长已经慎重地准备了民兵；在次日开始行动。
四个上南方州（田纳西州、阿肯色州、北卡罗莱那州及维吉尼亚州）虽曾经多次拒绝邦联提议，但此时拒绝联邦派遣军队对抗他们的同胞，宣布脱离联邦，并加入邦联。为报答维吉尼亚州，邦联迁都到里奇蒙。那个城市是邦联的标志；一旦失守，邦联将失去法律地位。里奇蒙是一个在迂回曲折的补给线上难以防守的地点。虽然里奇蒙已经深沟高垒，城市的补给被谢尔曼占据亚特兰大削弱并在格兰特包围彼得斯堡及补给里奇蒙的铁路后完全中断。
林肯在1860年美国总统选举获胜引发南卡罗莱那州脱离联邦。到1861年2月，再多六个州脱离。在2月7日，七个州为邦联采纳临时宪法并在蒙哥马里建立首都。战前的2月在华盛顿特区召开的1861和平会议尝试解决危机失败。其余南部各州仍然留在联邦。部分脱离联邦的州夺取在范围内的联邦要塞（但未取得萨姆特堡），总统布坎南抗议，但除尝试补给桑特堡失败外没有作出认真的军事反应。不过，麻萨诸塞州、纽约州及宾夕法尼亚州的州长秘密购入武器及训练军队。
少於一个月后，在1861年3月4日，林肯正式就任美国总统，在他的总统就职会场上，他主张宪法作为一个「更完美的结合」，有别於之前的邦联条例作为一份有约束力合约；并宣称脱离联邦「在法律上无效」。他声称无意入侵南部州份，但将使用武力以维持联邦物业的所有权。他的演说以恢复联邦关系的请求结束。
南部曾经派出代表到华盛顿并愿意为联邦物业付出代价及与美国讨论和平条约。林肯以邦联不是合法政府为由拒绝任何与邦联代表的交涉，而交涉等同承认邦联为一个有主权的政府。
南卡罗莱那州查尔斯顿的萨姆特堡是三个在邦联范围内仍然受联邦控制的要塞之一，而且林肯坚持要守住它。在邦联总统杰佛逊·戴维斯的命令下，邦联政府的皮瑞·波利加德部队在4月12日炮击要塞，迫使要塞投降。北方应林肯向各州的号召派遣部队重夺要塞及保护联邦。在当时叛乱显示的小规模，林肯在90天召集74,000志愿者。在数个月前，部分州长已经慎重地准备了民兵；在次日开始行动。
四个上南方州（田纳西州、阿肯色州、北卡罗莱那州及维吉尼亚州）虽曾经多次拒绝邦联提议，但此时拒绝联邦派遣军队对抗他们的同胞，宣布脱离联邦，并加入邦联。为报答维吉尼亚州，邦联迁都到里奇蒙。那个城市是邦联的标志；一旦失守，邦联将失去法律地位。里奇蒙是一个在迂回曲折的补给线上难以防守的地点。虽然里奇蒙已经深沟高垒，城市的补给被谢尔曼占据亚特兰大削弱并在格兰特包围彼得斯堡及补给里奇蒙的铁路后完全中断。
由於在维吉尼亚州马纳沙斯小撮邦联军队的猛烈抵抗，在1861年7月，在尔温·麦克道威少将率领一次向邦联的行军并进行第一次马纳沙斯之役[5]（第一次牛奔河之役），及后被邦联军将领约瑟夫‧强斯顿及皮瑞·波利加德击退返回华盛顿。这次战役邦联军将领汤玛士·杰克森得到「石墙」的称号，因为他有如石墙般抵御联邦军队。被这次失败所惊醒，及以防更多奴隶州脱离联邦，同年7月25日美国国会通过Crittenden-Johnson Resolution，声称战争是为保存联邦而不是终止奴隶制度。
乔治‧麦克莱伦少将在7月26日接手联邦波多马克军团（他曾当联邦军司令，但其后让亨利·郝列克接替），战争在1862年正式展开。
在总统林肯强烈要求开始进攻行动下，麦克莱伦在1862年春季由里奇蒙东南，约克河与詹姆斯河之间的维吉尼亚半岛入侵维吉尼亚州。虽然麦克莱伦在半岛行动（Peninsula Campaign）[6]中到达里奇蒙大门，约瑟夫‧强斯顿在七松之役（Battle of Seven Pines）阻止他的前进，继后罗伯特·李和部下詹姆斯·隆史崔特、约瑟夫‧强斯顿[7]在七天战役将他击退。北维吉尼亚行动，包括第二次牛奔河之役，均以南方胜利告终。[8]麦克莱伦违反司令郝列克增援约翰‧波普在维吉尼亚州联邦军的命令，令罗伯特·李的邦联军更易打败为数两倍的敌军。
在第二次牛奔河之役的鼓励下，邦联首次入侵北部，9月5日李将军率领北维吉尼亚军团45,000人越过波多马克河进入马里兰州。林肯随后向麦克莱伦归还波普的部队。9月17日麦克莱伦和李在马里兰州夏普斯堡附近安提耶坦之役[9]交战，是美国历史上最血腥的一天。李的军队到最后被制止，在被麦克莱伦歼灭之前回到维吉尼亚州。安提耶坦之役被认为是联邦的胜利，因为它阻止李的北侵并让林肯有机会宣布《解放奴隶宣言》[10]
谨慎的麦克莱伦未能在安提耶坦追击后，他被安伯洛斯·本赛少将接替。本赛很快就在12月13日的弗雷德里克斯堡战役[11]落败，向玛莉高地正面进攻徒劳无功，超过12,000联邦士兵伤亡。战役后本赛被约瑟夫·胡克少将接替。胡克同样不能击败李的军队，虽然数量上与邦联比较超过2比1，他在1863年5月在钱斯勒斯维尔战役[12]遭到羞辱。在6月李的第二次北侵被乔治·米德少将接替。米德在7月1日至7月3日的最血腥的盖茨堡之役[13]打败李，并被认为是整场内战的转捩点。在7月3日的皮克特冲锋亦是邦联军的最后高潮，不单是因为它代表了李将军计划向华盛顿施压的终结，而且控制密西西比河的主要据点维克斯堡在翌日陷落。李军死伤约28,000人（米德军23,000人）。但是林肯不满米德未能拦截李的撤退，在米德非决定性的秋季攻势后，林肯决定转向西部战场一决雌雄。
正当联盟军在东部取得了无数的胜利时，然而他们却在最关键的西部上失败了。联盟军在早期的Pea Ridge战役中被联邦军从密苏里州赶了出去。另外，联盟国的李欧尼达斯·波克（Leonidas Polk）将军在肯塔基州发动的侵入行动，结果也激怒了该州的民众，因此，肯塔基州便成为了联盟国的敌人。
纳许维尔（田纳西州的首府）也於1862年输给了联邦军。自从1862年5月份，密西西比州的第10号岛（Island No. 10）、密苏里州的New Madrid、田纳西州的孟菲斯和路易西安纳州的纽奥良几个南方大城市都被联邦军占领了，从此，联邦军便可在密西西比州的土地上如「入无人之境」一般。只剩下Vicksburg（密西西比州西南部的城市）在整条河的对岸继续与联邦抗拒。
联盟军的布雷斯顿·布瑞格（Braxton Bragg）将军亦在第二次肯塔基州的侵略行动中被联邦军的比尔（Don Carlos Buell）将军，於血腥的培利维尔（Perryvillel）战役中被赶走。数月后又在Stone River战役里被William S. Rosecrans的军团於田纳西州打败。但庆幸的是，联盟军於近田纳西州的边境，乔治亚州里的奇卡牟加战役（battle of Chickamauga）中取得了胜利。因为布雷斯顿·布瑞格将军在这场战役里得到了James Longstreet军团的支援（李将军的东部援军）。尽管联邦的George Henry Thomas军团在那里英勇奋守，最终也只能撤退。
联邦的主要战争策略是来自西部的尤里西斯·辛普森·格兰特（Grant，Ulysses Simpson）所出的谋略，他曾在这次内战中控制了敌军的Donelson和Henry等要塞，和田纳西州的坎伯兰河。巩固了联邦政府对於密西西比州的控制，以及开始了美国内战的转捩点。而且，尤里西斯将军更把联盟军由田纳西州赶了出去，并向联盟国的「心脏」地点进行入侵，那就是乔治亚州的亚特兰大。
对应翻译
The war begins
For more details on this topic, see Battle of Fort Sumter.
Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union. By February 1861, six more Southern states made similar declarations. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington in a failed attempt at resolving the crisis. The remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy. Confederate forces seized most of the federal forts within their boundaries. President Buchanan protested but made no military response aside from a failed attempt to resupply Fort Sumter via the ship Star of the West, which was fired upon by South Carolina forces and turned back before it reached the fort.[68] However, governors in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania quietly began buying weapons and training militia units.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void".[69] He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.[70]
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents on the grounds that the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.[71] However, Secretary of State William Seward engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.[71]
Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, Fort Monroe, Fort Pickens and Fort Taylor were the remaining Union-held forts in the Confederacy, and Lincoln was determined to hold Fort Sumter. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, troops controlled by the Confederate government under P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded the fort with artillery on April 12, forcing the fort's capitulation. Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all of the states to send troops to recapture the forts and to preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days.[72] For months before that, several Northern governors had discreetly readied their state militias; they began to move forces the next day.[73] Liberty Arsenal in Liberty, Missouri was seized eight days after Fort Sumter.
Four states in the upper South (Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Virginia), which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, now refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.[74] The city was the symbol of the Confederacy. Richmond was in a highly vulnerable location at the end of a tortuous Confederate supply line. Although Richmond was heavily fortified, supplies for the city would be reduced by Sherman's capture of Atlanta and cut off almost entirely when Grant besieged Petersburg and its railroads that supplied the Southern capital.
Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861
Main articles: Naval battles of the American Civil War, Union blockade, and Confederate States Navy
1861 cartoon of Scott's "Anaconda Plan"Winfield Scott, the commanding general of the U.S. Army, devised the Anaconda Plan[75] to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan, but overruled Scott's warnings against an immediate attack on Richmond.
In May 1861, Lincoln enacted the Union blockade of all Southern ports, ending regular international shipments to the Confederacy. When violators' ships and cargoes were seized, they were sold and the proceeds given to Union sailors, but the British crews were released. By late 1861, the blockade stopped most local port-to-port traffic. The blockade shut down King Cotton, ruining the Southern economy. British investors built small, fast "blockade runners" that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda, Cuba and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton and tobacco.[76] Shortages of food and other goods triggered by the blockade, foraging by Northern armies, and the impressment of crops by Confederate armies combined to cause hyperinflation and bread riots in the South.[77]
On March 8, 1862, the Confederate Navy waged a fight against the Union Navy when the ironclad CSS Virginia attacked the blockade; against wooden ships she seemed unstoppable but the next day she had to fight the new Union warship USS Monitor in the Battle of the Ironclads.[78] The battle ended in a draw, which was a strategic victory for the Union in that the blockade was sustained. The Confederacy lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port and virtually ended blockade running.
Eastern Theater 1861–1863
For more details on this topic, see Eastern Theater of the American Civil War.
A Union Regimental Fife and Drum CorpsBecause of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas,[79] whereupon they were forced back to Washington, D.C., by Confederate troops under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the nickname of "Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops.[80] Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,[81][82][83] Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson[84] defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[85] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam[84] near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[86] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[87]
Confederate dead behind the stone wall of Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[88] on December 13, 1862, when over twelve thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville[89] in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg[90] (July 1 to July 3, 1863), the bloodiest battle of the war, which is sometimes considered the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often recalled as the high-water mark of the Confederacy, not just because it signaled the end of Lee's plan to pressure Washington from the north, but also because Vicksburg, Mississippi, the key stronghold to control of the Mississippi, fell the following day. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[91] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln decided to turn to the Western Theater for new leadership.
Western Theater 1861–1863
For more details on this topic, see Western Theater of the American Civil War.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[92] Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
Most of the Mississippi was opened to Union traffic with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In May 1862 the Union Navy captured New Orleans[93] without a major fight, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville,[94] although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at liberating Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River[95] in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[96] and the Battle of Vicksburg,[97] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[98] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
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