语言学概论 怎么考试
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Phonology
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）
Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）
Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）
A. stops/plosives: [p][b][t][d][k][g]
B. fricatives:[f, v, s, z, ∫, +, +, +, h]
C. affricates: [t∫, +]
D. liquids: lateral [l], retroflex [r]
E. nasals: [m, n, ŋ]
F. glides/semivowels: [w, j]
A. bilabial: [p, b, m, w]
B. labio-dental: [f, v]
C. dental: [θ, +]
D. alveolar: [t, d, s, z, n, l, r]
E. palatal: [+, +, +, +, j]
F. velar: [k, g, ŋ]
G. glottal: [h]
A phone（音素） is a discriminable speech sound. It doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning, Phone is a phonetic unit or segment, some distinguish meaning, some don’t
Phoneme（音位） is the smallest part of speech that can be used to make a word different from another that is the same in every other way，Phoneme is an abstract phonological （抽象的音韵学的）unit of distinctive value that is represented or realized by a certain phone.
Allophones（音位变体）: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments
Phonemic contrast（音位对比）: When two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.
complementary distribution（互补分布） : Two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i. e. they occur in different phonetic environments.
Minimal pairs（最小对立体）: When two different forms are identical（相同的） in every way except for one sound that occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are called minimal pairs.
我们把像 bear和pear (They are identical in form except for the initial consonants.) 这样只有一个音素对立(contrast)而其他方面都相同并处于语流中同一位置上的一对词称为最小对立体。最小对立体是指语言中的两个词，只因为有一个区别性的音（即一个音位），其意义也因此而不同。
Sequential rules（序列规则）
Assimilation rule（同化规则）
Deletion rule（省略规则）
Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）
1. Stress
2. Tone
3. Intonation
English is an intonation language，Chinese is a typical tone language
Morphology形态学
Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed（形态学研究词的内部结构及其构词的规则）.
Free morpheme（自由词素） is a minimal grammatical unit which can be used as a word without the need for further morphological modification.
Bound morpheme（黏着词素） :is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word.
Derivational morpheme（派生词素） : Bound morphemes which change grammatical class of words, or the lexical meaning of the original word, or both .
Inflectional morphemes（屈折词素） : Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying（指代） such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.
Derivational and inflectional morphemes：The result of a derivational process is a new word (e.g. nation national), whereas the result of an inflectional process is a different form of the same word (e.g. takes / walks, walking/ taking, talked, taken, cats, boy’s, larger, largest)
free morpheme
morpheme derivational morpheme （prefix，suffix）
bound morpheme
inflectional morpheme （suffix）
inflectional morphology (屈折形态学the study of inflections)
lexical / derivational morphology (派生形态学the study of word formation)
Morpheme（词素） is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Prefix: Morphemes that occur only before other morphemes.
Suffix: Morphemes that only occur after other morphemes.
Syntax句法
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
basic lexical categories ：
nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs 副词
Articles 冠词
Pronouns 代词
Prepositions 介词
Conjunctions 连词
Determiner 限定词
Degree Word
Qualifier修饰词
Auxiliary 助动词
Conjunction 连接词
Phrase is a single element of structure usually containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.
The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP). Phrases usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement.
Phrase structure rule ：Special type of grammatical mechanism（机制） that regulate（规定） the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase
XP rule： (specifier) X (complement)
Sentence is the largest structural unit in terms of which the grammar of a language is organized.
Classified by structure, there are four kinds of sentences:
Simple sentence简单句
Compound sentence 并列句
Complex sentence 复合句
Compound-complex并列复合句
Classified by use, sentences can be divided into other four parts:
Declarative sentence 陈述句
Interrogative sentence 疑问句
Imperative sentence祈使句
Exclamatory sentence感叹句
S=Subject主语, V=Verb, O=Object宾语, C=Complement补语, A=Adverbial状语
1.How to determine a word’s category？
Words are classified into classes according to usage and how it can combine with other words in sentences
2. What do phrases usually contain?
Phrases usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement.
3. What are six major kinds of clauses?
Subject clause 主语从句
Predicative clause表语从句
Object clause宾语从句
Attributive clause定语从句
Appositive clause同位语从句
Adverbial clause 状语从句
4. Quirk, et al (1972) introduces seven sentence types. What are they?
Type SV The sun rises. They have arrived.
Type SVC Mary is a student. Tom is generous.
Type SVA Tom is here. Tom is in the office
Type SVO Marry enjoyed classical music. I like volleyball.
(S) (V) (O)
Type SVOC We have proved him wrong. / a fool. / it correct.
(S) (V) (O) (C)
Type SVOA I put the key in the pocket.
(S) (V) (O) (A)
Type SVOO He gave me a book.
(S) (V) (O) (O)
5. What is immediate constituent?
This refers to the two parts that are yielded after each cut
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning
Meaning: The object of semantics
The naming theory is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
The conceptualist view（概念论 / 词义的概念说）
Contextualism（语境论) ： is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context. According to this view, one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
Behaviorism（行为主义论） is a view which draws on behaviorist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.
Sense and reference （系统意义和指称意义）
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form
Sense = Sense Relation + Sense Properties
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world
Meaning = sense + reference
Synonymy（同义现象）
Antonymy（反义现象）
Polysemy（多义现象）
Homonymy（同音/形异义）
Hyponymy（下义关系）
Componential Analysis(成分分析法) is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
Predication Analysis(述谓结构分析) – a way to analyze sentence meaning
A prediction is consist of arguments and predicate
two-place predication，(containing two arguments)，（双项表述、双位述谓结构）
one-place predication，(containing one argument)，（单项表述、一位述谓结构）
no-place predication，(containing no argument)，（零项表述、空位述谓结构）
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in context. It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics vs. semantics
Similarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.
Difference：
1. Semantics: The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, sentences were all studied in isolation from language use.
2. Pragmatics: It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use is left unconsidered. Therefore, context is taken into consideration.
Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of a linguistic form. However, they are different in many respects, such as their research methods, their research scope. What essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it its not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics?
• Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker meaning.
• Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.
• Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is inferred.
•
Context：As a comprehensive concept, ‘context’ refers to all elements of a communicative situation: the verbal and non-verbal context, the context of the given speech situation and the social context of the relationship between the speaker and hearer, their knowledge, and their attitude
Context = linguistic context + situational context
Importance of Context
Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning：见讲义
1. Sentence: Sentence is a unit of speech constructed according to language-dependent rules, which is relatively complete and independent in respect of content, grammatical structure, and intonation. It is a grammatical unit, abstract, self-contained, and independent of context.
2. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Types of speech acts
① locutionary act:（言内行为）
② illocutionary act:（言外行为）
③ perlocutionary act:（言后行为）
Principles of conversation (Cooperative principles)会话原则或合作原则
• Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher
• The maxim of quantity: 量准则
• The maxim of quality: 质准则
• The maxim of relation: 关联准则
• The maxim of manner: 方式准则
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）
Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）
Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）
A. stops/plosives: [p][b][t][d][k][g]
B. fricatives:[f, v, s, z, ∫, +, +, +, h]
C. affricates: [t∫, +]
D. liquids: lateral [l], retroflex [r]
E. nasals: [m, n, ŋ]
F. glides/semivowels: [w, j]
A. bilabial: [p, b, m, w]
B. labio-dental: [f, v]
C. dental: [θ, +]
D. alveolar: [t, d, s, z, n, l, r]
E. palatal: [+, +, +, +, j]
F. velar: [k, g, ŋ]
G. glottal: [h]
A phone（音素） is a discriminable speech sound. It doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning, Phone is a phonetic unit or segment, some distinguish meaning, some don’t
Phoneme（音位） is the smallest part of speech that can be used to make a word different from another that is the same in every other way，Phoneme is an abstract phonological （抽象的音韵学的）unit of distinctive value that is represented or realized by a certain phone.
Allophones（音位变体）: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments
Phonemic contrast（音位对比）: When two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.
complementary distribution（互补分布） : Two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i. e. they occur in different phonetic environments.
Minimal pairs（最小对立体）: When two different forms are identical（相同的） in every way except for one sound that occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are called minimal pairs.
我们把像 bear和pear (They are identical in form except for the initial consonants.) 这样只有一个音素对立(contrast)而其他方面都相同并处于语流中同一位置上的一对词称为最小对立体。最小对立体是指语言中的两个词，只因为有一个区别性的音（即一个音位），其意义也因此而不同。
Sequential rules（序列规则）
Assimilation rule（同化规则）
Deletion rule（省略规则）
Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）
1. Stress
2. Tone
3. Intonation
English is an intonation language，Chinese is a typical tone language
Morphology形态学
Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed（形态学研究词的内部结构及其构词的规则）.
Free morpheme（自由词素） is a minimal grammatical unit which can be used as a word without the need for further morphological modification.
Bound morpheme（黏着词素） :is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word.
Derivational morpheme（派生词素） : Bound morphemes which change grammatical class of words, or the lexical meaning of the original word, or both .
Inflectional morphemes（屈折词素） : Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying（指代） such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.
Derivational and inflectional morphemes：The result of a derivational process is a new word (e.g. nation national), whereas the result of an inflectional process is a different form of the same word (e.g. takes / walks, walking/ taking, talked, taken, cats, boy’s, larger, largest)
free morpheme
morpheme derivational morpheme （prefix，suffix）
bound morpheme
inflectional morpheme （suffix）
inflectional morphology (屈折形态学the study of inflections)
lexical / derivational morphology (派生形态学the study of word formation)
Morpheme（词素） is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Prefix: Morphemes that occur only before other morphemes.
Suffix: Morphemes that only occur after other morphemes.
Syntax句法
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
basic lexical categories ：
nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs 副词
Articles 冠词
Pronouns 代词
Prepositions 介词
Conjunctions 连词
Determiner 限定词
Degree Word
Qualifier修饰词
Auxiliary 助动词
Conjunction 连接词
Phrase is a single element of structure usually containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.
The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP). Phrases usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement.
Phrase structure rule ：Special type of grammatical mechanism（机制） that regulate（规定） the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase
XP rule： (specifier) X (complement)
Sentence is the largest structural unit in terms of which the grammar of a language is organized.
Classified by structure, there are four kinds of sentences:
Simple sentence简单句
Compound sentence 并列句
Complex sentence 复合句
Compound-complex并列复合句
Classified by use, sentences can be divided into other four parts:
Declarative sentence 陈述句
Interrogative sentence 疑问句
Imperative sentence祈使句
Exclamatory sentence感叹句
S=Subject主语, V=Verb, O=Object宾语, C=Complement补语, A=Adverbial状语
1.How to determine a word’s category？
Words are classified into classes according to usage and how it can combine with other words in sentences
2. What do phrases usually contain?
Phrases usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement.
3. What are six major kinds of clauses?
Subject clause 主语从句
Predicative clause表语从句
Object clause宾语从句
Attributive clause定语从句
Appositive clause同位语从句
Adverbial clause 状语从句
4. Quirk, et al (1972) introduces seven sentence types. What are they?
Type SV The sun rises. They have arrived.
Type SVC Mary is a student. Tom is generous.
Type SVA Tom is here. Tom is in the office
Type SVO Marry enjoyed classical music. I like volleyball.
(S) (V) (O)
Type SVOC We have proved him wrong. / a fool. / it correct.
(S) (V) (O) (C)
Type SVOA I put the key in the pocket.
(S) (V) (O) (A)
Type SVOO He gave me a book.
(S) (V) (O) (O)
5. What is immediate constituent?
This refers to the two parts that are yielded after each cut
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning
Meaning: The object of semantics
The naming theory is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
The conceptualist view（概念论 / 词义的概念说）
Contextualism（语境论) ： is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context. According to this view, one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
Behaviorism（行为主义论） is a view which draws on behaviorist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.
Sense and reference （系统意义和指称意义）
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form
Sense = Sense Relation + Sense Properties
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world
Meaning = sense + reference
Synonymy（同义现象）
Antonymy（反义现象）
Polysemy（多义现象）
Homonymy（同音/形异义）
Hyponymy（下义关系）
Componential Analysis(成分分析法) is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
Predication Analysis(述谓结构分析) – a way to analyze sentence meaning
A prediction is consist of arguments and predicate
two-place predication，(containing two arguments)，（双项表述、双位述谓结构）
one-place predication，(containing one argument)，（单项表述、一位述谓结构）
no-place predication，(containing no argument)，（零项表述、空位述谓结构）
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in context. It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics vs. semantics
Similarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.
Difference：
1. Semantics: The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, sentences were all studied in isolation from language use.
2. Pragmatics: It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use is left unconsidered. Therefore, context is taken into consideration.
Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of a linguistic form. However, they are different in many respects, such as their research methods, their research scope. What essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it its not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics?
• Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker meaning.
• Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.
• Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is inferred.
•
Context：As a comprehensive concept, ‘context’ refers to all elements of a communicative situation: the verbal and non-verbal context, the context of the given speech situation and the social context of the relationship between the speaker and hearer, their knowledge, and their attitude
Context = linguistic context + situational context
Importance of Context
Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning：见讲义
1. Sentence: Sentence is a unit of speech constructed according to language-dependent rules, which is relatively complete and independent in respect of content, grammatical structure, and intonation. It is a grammatical unit, abstract, self-contained, and independent of context.
2. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Types of speech acts
① locutionary act:（言内行为）
② illocutionary act:（言外行为）
③ perlocutionary act:（言后行为）
Principles of conversation (Cooperative principles)会话原则或合作原则
• Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher
• The maxim of quantity: 量准则
• The maxim of quality: 质准则
• The maxim of relation: 关联准则
• The maxim of manner: 方式准则
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不是这样的，语言学概论是分为英语专业的语言学和汉语专业的语言学，两者内容有一致的地方，也有区别的地方，
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Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology is the study of sound system, studies how sounds are organized and use in natural language
Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in context. It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Semantics VS Pragmatics
Difference:
1. Semantics: The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic , and inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, sentences were all studied in isolation from language use.
2. Pragmatics: It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use is left unconsidered. Therefore, context is taken into consideration.
Similarity: Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
1. Sentence: Sentence is a unit of speech constructed according to language-dependent rules, which is relatively complete and independent in respect of content, grammatical structure, and intonation. It is a grammatical unit, abstract, self-contained, and independent of context
2. Utterance: When a sentence is taken as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, it is treated as an utterance. Therefore, utterance is the string of sounds or written symbols produced by a speaker between two pauses. An utterance can consist of a single word or several sentences.
While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Phonology and phonetics
They both concerned with the same aspect : the speech sounds
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication
Definitions
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
1. Phonology is the basis for phonological analysis.
Phonology is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design. It analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by determining which phonetic sounds are significant , and explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
Phonology is the study of sound system, studies how sounds are organized and use in natural language
Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in context. It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Semantics VS Pragmatics
Difference:
1. Semantics: The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic , and inherent, i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, sentences were all studied in isolation from language use.
2. Pragmatics: It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use is left unconsidered. Therefore, context is taken into consideration.
Similarity: Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
1. Sentence: Sentence is a unit of speech constructed according to language-dependent rules, which is relatively complete and independent in respect of content, grammatical structure, and intonation. It is a grammatical unit, abstract, self-contained, and independent of context
2. Utterance: When a sentence is taken as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, it is treated as an utterance. Therefore, utterance is the string of sounds or written symbols produced by a speaker between two pauses. An utterance can consist of a single word or several sentences.
While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Phonology and phonetics
They both concerned with the same aspect : the speech sounds
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication
Definitions
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
1. Phonology is the basis for phonological analysis.
Phonology is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design. It analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by determining which phonetic sounds are significant , and explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
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无非就是单选，填空，简答，论述，最多还有个语言现象分析
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