英文好的帮帮我吧
我要找两篇关于女性职业生涯发展或者关于工作中性别歧视的外文，写毕业论文用，谁有，共享一下吧，谢谢了英文字数在2000左右，是近十年的，要有来源，作者，最好有翻译，是关于国...
我要找两篇关于女性职业生涯发展或者关于工作中性别歧视的外文，写毕业论文用，谁有，共享一下吧，谢谢了
英文字数在2000左右，是近十年的，要有来源，作者，最好有翻译，是关于国外的女性职业生涯发展的外文，不是研究中国的。谢谢了！ 展开
英文字数在2000左右，是近十年的，要有来源，作者，最好有翻译，是关于国外的女性职业生涯发展的外文，不是研究中国的。谢谢了！ 展开
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Women have historically been excluded from participation in many professions. When women have gained entry into a previously male profession, they have faced many additional obstacles; Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to receive an M.D. in the United States, and Myra Bradwell, the first female lawyer in the state of Illinois, are examples.
Professional discrimination continues today, according to studies done by Cornell University and others. It has been hypothesized that gender bias has been influencing which scientific research gets published. This hypothesis coincides with a test conducted at the University of Toronto led by Amber Budden. Based on the results of this study, almost 10 percent of female authors get their papers published when their gender is hidden.
In addition, women frequently earn significantly less wages than their male counterparts who perform the same job.[28] In the United States, for example, women earn an average of 23.5% less than men.[29]
Some experts believe that parents play an important role in the creation of values and perceptions of their children. The fact that girls are asked to help their mothers do housework, while boys do technical tasks with their fathers, seems to influence their behavior and can sometimes discourage girls from performing such tasks. Girls will then think that each gender should have a specific role and behavior.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]
A 2009 study of CEOs found that more men occupying the position were overweight or obese compared to men in the general population, while the reverse held true for female CEOs.[citation needed] The leader of the study stated that the results "suggest that while being obese limits the career opportunities of both women and men, being merely overweight harms only female executives -- and may actually benefit male executives."[38]
At other times, there are accusations that some traditionally female professions have been or are being eliminated by its roles being subsumed by a male dominated profession. The assumption of baby delivery roles by doctors and subsequent decline of midwifery is sometimes claimed to be an example.
Occupational sexism
Main article: Occupational sexism
Occupational sexism refers to any discriminatory practices, statements, actions, etc. based on a person's sex that are present or occur in a place of employment. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination, which is prohibited in the US.[46]
[edit]Gender wage gap
Main article: Income disparity
See also: Male–female income disparity in the United States
Women have historically earned less than men; the reasons for the current wage gap are the subject of controversy.
In the 19th century and for much of the 20th, women were paid less than men for the same work. In the United States, this eventually led to the passing of the U.S. Equal Pay Act in 1963. At that time, women earned approximately 58 cents to a man's dollar.[47]
Today, women in the United States are estimated to earn roughly 75 percent of the income of men.[47][48] The difference in wages is reduced when factors such as hours worked and experience are controlled for. For instance, one study found that while women earn 69 cents for every dollar a man earns 10 years after graduating college. When experience, education, training and personal characteristics were controlled for, however, women earned over 96 cents for every dollar a man made 10 years after graduating college.[49] Unmarried women without children may earn 15 to 20 percent more than males in the same situation, depending upon geographical location in the US.[50][51]
Women are less likely to negotiate raises, and when they do negotiate, they are less likely to receive them.[52] David R. Hekman and colleagues found that women are less likely to negotiate because they are less valuable in the marketplace than equally well performing white men.[53] Hekman et al. (2009) found that customers who viewed videos featuring a black male, a white female, or a white male actor playing the role of an employee helping a customer were 19% more satisfied with the white male employee's performance and also were more satisfied with the store's cleanliness and appearance. This despite that all three actors performed identically, read the same script, and were in exactly the same location with identical camera angles and lighting. Moreover, 45 percent of the customers were women and 41 percent were non-white, indicating that even women and minority customers prefer white men. In a second study, they found that white male doctors were rated as more approachable and competent than equally-well performing women or minority doctors. They interpret their findings to suggest that employers are willing to pay more for white male employees because employers are customer driven and customers are happier with white male employees. They also suggest that what is required to solve the problem of wage inequality isn't necessarily paying women more but changing customer biases. This paper has been featured in many media outlets including The New York Times,[54] The Washington Post,[55] The Boston Globe,[56] and National Public Radio.[57] Perhaps because women are less valuable to customers than men, women are more likely to work part-time, to take more time off for their children, and join lower status professions.[58][59]
Research done at Cornell University and elsewhere indicates that mothers are 44 percent less likely to be hired than women with otherwise identical resumes, experience, and qualifications, and, if hired, are offered on average $USD 11,000 a year less than women without children.[60] Exactly the opposite form of discrimination is indicated for men; those without children earn, on average, $7,500 less than men with children.[58]
A factor that is used by some authors, such as Warren Farrell, to partially explain the wage gap is the fact that the majority of victims of workplace accidents are male. For example in Canada, the rate of workplace accidents was 30 times higher for men than for women in 2005[61] and in the U.S. 93% of people killed in the workplace in 2008 were men.[62]
A study by Schilt and Wiswall found that female-to-male transsexuals earn an average of 1.5% more after their transition, whereas male-to-female transsexuals earn an average of 32% less.[63]
Professional discrimination continues today, according to studies done by Cornell University and others. It has been hypothesized that gender bias has been influencing which scientific research gets published. This hypothesis coincides with a test conducted at the University of Toronto led by Amber Budden. Based on the results of this study, almost 10 percent of female authors get their papers published when their gender is hidden.
In addition, women frequently earn significantly less wages than their male counterparts who perform the same job.[28] In the United States, for example, women earn an average of 23.5% less than men.[29]
Some experts believe that parents play an important role in the creation of values and perceptions of their children. The fact that girls are asked to help their mothers do housework, while boys do technical tasks with their fathers, seems to influence their behavior and can sometimes discourage girls from performing such tasks. Girls will then think that each gender should have a specific role and behavior.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]
A 2009 study of CEOs found that more men occupying the position were overweight or obese compared to men in the general population, while the reverse held true for female CEOs.[citation needed] The leader of the study stated that the results "suggest that while being obese limits the career opportunities of both women and men, being merely overweight harms only female executives -- and may actually benefit male executives."[38]
At other times, there are accusations that some traditionally female professions have been or are being eliminated by its roles being subsumed by a male dominated profession. The assumption of baby delivery roles by doctors and subsequent decline of midwifery is sometimes claimed to be an example.
Occupational sexism
Main article: Occupational sexism
Occupational sexism refers to any discriminatory practices, statements, actions, etc. based on a person's sex that are present or occur in a place of employment. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination, which is prohibited in the US.[46]
[edit]Gender wage gap
Main article: Income disparity
See also: Male–female income disparity in the United States
Women have historically earned less than men; the reasons for the current wage gap are the subject of controversy.
In the 19th century and for much of the 20th, women were paid less than men for the same work. In the United States, this eventually led to the passing of the U.S. Equal Pay Act in 1963. At that time, women earned approximately 58 cents to a man's dollar.[47]
Today, women in the United States are estimated to earn roughly 75 percent of the income of men.[47][48] The difference in wages is reduced when factors such as hours worked and experience are controlled for. For instance, one study found that while women earn 69 cents for every dollar a man earns 10 years after graduating college. When experience, education, training and personal characteristics were controlled for, however, women earned over 96 cents for every dollar a man made 10 years after graduating college.[49] Unmarried women without children may earn 15 to 20 percent more than males in the same situation, depending upon geographical location in the US.[50][51]
Women are less likely to negotiate raises, and when they do negotiate, they are less likely to receive them.[52] David R. Hekman and colleagues found that women are less likely to negotiate because they are less valuable in the marketplace than equally well performing white men.[53] Hekman et al. (2009) found that customers who viewed videos featuring a black male, a white female, or a white male actor playing the role of an employee helping a customer were 19% more satisfied with the white male employee's performance and also were more satisfied with the store's cleanliness and appearance. This despite that all three actors performed identically, read the same script, and were in exactly the same location with identical camera angles and lighting. Moreover, 45 percent of the customers were women and 41 percent were non-white, indicating that even women and minority customers prefer white men. In a second study, they found that white male doctors were rated as more approachable and competent than equally-well performing women or minority doctors. They interpret their findings to suggest that employers are willing to pay more for white male employees because employers are customer driven and customers are happier with white male employees. They also suggest that what is required to solve the problem of wage inequality isn't necessarily paying women more but changing customer biases. This paper has been featured in many media outlets including The New York Times,[54] The Washington Post,[55] The Boston Globe,[56] and National Public Radio.[57] Perhaps because women are less valuable to customers than men, women are more likely to work part-time, to take more time off for their children, and join lower status professions.[58][59]
Research done at Cornell University and elsewhere indicates that mothers are 44 percent less likely to be hired than women with otherwise identical resumes, experience, and qualifications, and, if hired, are offered on average $USD 11,000 a year less than women without children.[60] Exactly the opposite form of discrimination is indicated for men; those without children earn, on average, $7,500 less than men with children.[58]
A factor that is used by some authors, such as Warren Farrell, to partially explain the wage gap is the fact that the majority of victims of workplace accidents are male. For example in Canada, the rate of workplace accidents was 30 times higher for men than for women in 2005[61] and in the U.S. 93% of people killed in the workplace in 2008 were men.[62]
A study by Schilt and Wiswall found that female-to-male transsexuals earn an average of 1.5% more after their transition, whereas male-to-female transsexuals earn an average of 32% less.[63]
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