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The stories make us shake our heads in wonder: A fireman plucks a life from a burning roof. An assistant principal gently takes a gun from a school shooter. A man gives half his liver to save a stranger.
How do you explain such recent behavior?
In past years, "the response to apparently altruistic acts has been: 'People are basically selfish. The only reason they help each other is that they think they'll get something out of it,' " says University of Wisconsin philosopher Elliott Sober. Cynical as it seems, that judgment was the logical lesson to draw from decades of theory and research. Biologists believed that, evolutionarily speaking, we're all on our own, and psychologists subscribed to the "behaviorist" view that people are motivated only by rewards and punishments.
But that gloomy view is brightening as scientists begin to look on the sunny side of human nature. Psychologists are finding that our motivations may include a genuine desire to help others, and biologists now say humans evolved to be altruistic because groups in which members help each other fare better than those in which each member stands alone. For the first time, science is acknowledging that genuine altruism exists - and is as basic to human nature as selfishness.
Everywhere in our culture, altruism is gaining attention: Economists are realizing that real people aren't like the "rational actor" of their neat theories, whose choices are dictated solely by self-interest. Anthropologists now know our ancient ancestors were not lone hunters, but helped one another gather food. Even in the cutthroat world of business, teams are the trend and cooperation the new name of the game.
Today, charitable giving is up and a new generation of high-profile benefactors has managed to make philanthropy chic. Along with the eye-popping wealth of tycoons such as Ted Turner and Bill Gates has come equally outsized generosity, such as Turner's $1 billion bequest to the United Nations and Gates' $11.3 billion endowment to, among other things, buy computers for public libraries.
The difference is nurture
Advocates of egoism, as the anti-altruism position is known, say people help others only to relieve their own discomfort. Fine, thought University of Kansas psychologist Daniel Batson: We'll design an experiment that makes it easy to turn away from others' suffering. But even when offered an escape from watching a woman receive (simulated) electric shocks, two thirds of the college students in his study instead chose to receive shocks in her place.
And anyone who thinks we help others just to feel good should hear the research of David Schroeder, a University of Arkansas psychologist. He arranged for subjects to believe their mood wouldn't change, no matter what they did when confronted with an ill woman who was having trouble calling for assistance. Yet more than two thirds volunteered to help. Going in, Schroeder expected evidence of selfishness: "To our surprise, we found there are at least some circumstances and some times when altruism does happen."
Why do some help and others don't? The difference lies in our environments. "A seed will only become a flower if it gets sun and water," as Louis Gottschalk, a psychiatry professor at the University of California-Irvine, puts it. The sunshine, in this case, is often parental care and attention. Studies of altruists have found these triggers in childhood:
Loving parents who instilled healthy self-esteem.
Moms and dads who modeled selfless behavior. "Just telling your kids to be altruistic is not enough. You have to do it, too," says Jane Piliavin, a sociologist at the University of Wisconsin. "Adults who volunteer and intend to continue volunteering are the ones who report that their parents were volunteers."
Parents who inculcated a moral code. Altruists "learned early on that it's wrong to hurt, it's wrong to oppress, it's wrong to exclude," says sociologist Samuel Oliner of California's Humboldt State University. The same conditions seem to produce "heroic altruists" - people who risk their lives - and ordinary folks who give in less spectacular but no less generous ways. (Oliner knows heroism: As a child in wartime Poland, a townswoman saved him from Nazis.)
Culture's selfish pull
Even parents who do everything right have to fight the cultural tide. "We know human nature has the capacity to be selfish and altruistic, so the question becomes: What does our society do to encourage one or the other?" Piliavin asks. Her rueful answer: "Our culture strongly encourages looking out for No. 1."
America's consumerism can put things before people. Our full-steam-ahead economy leaves some behind. And our tradition of rugged individualism elevates the one above the many. Surveys show that while 80% of us agree that citizens should be involved in their communities, far fewer - 49% - actually volunteer. "We're a society of busy, involved people who have a lot of commitments," says University of Minnesota psychologist Mark Snyder. "It's easy to endorse altruism. It's harder to figure out, 'Where am I going to find those five extra hours a week?' "
A prescription for altruism
Altruism isn't out of reach for any of us, even those who weren't well-parented or who have never been the do-gooder type.
Begin by giving others the benefit of the doubt. "There's evidence," Sober says, "that people's beliefs about human nature [whether people are basically selfish or altruistic] influence how they behave in situations in which they see someone in need." Instead of forcing a selflessness you don't feel, try putting yourself in situations - the local soup kitchen, a children's shelter - where your sympathy is likely to be evoked. You may feel stirrings of altruism in spite of yourself.
Then, just do it - and do it again. Piliavin, who studies the reasons people give blood, says repeat donors make it "part of their sense of self, so that if they were to stop they would feel like they had lost something of themselves. Also, other people start to view you as 'the kind of person' who helps. Then you have both internal and external encouragement to continue."
Finally, don't think of service as a sacrifice or a chore, but as an opportunity.
It's here that social science has in a sense come full circle: Volunteers who think they are getting something back, such as new friends or new skills, are most likely to keep giving, Snyder's studies show. Their motives may not be entirely selfless, "but these are the people who make the most sustained contribution to society," says Snyder. "I see that as a win-win situation."
Annie Murphy Paul learned about altruism from her father, a social worker who helps abused and neglected children.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Want to have a more altruistic personality?
Cultivate these traits.
Empathy. Altruists easily imagine what it's like to be in another's shoes.
An urge to give. "People who are altruistic have the genuine desire
to see others prosper," says philosopher Elliott Sober. "They don't have to fight against some stronger tendency to keep the cookie for themselves."
Tolerance. Altruists tend to reject stereotypes and to have friends
from different racial, ethnic and religious groups.
A keen sense of justice. They protest unfair treatment of others.
Religious, in a particular way. Altruists have "a kind of spirituality that believes we all belong to the human family," says sociologist Samuel Oliner. "It's a belief that everyone is part of a common universe."
A history of generosity. They make helping people a habit.
Confidence. "Altruistic people have a strong sense that they can shape their destinies," says University of South Florida psychologist Louis Penner. "They have a great deal of self-confidence, bordering on arrogance. It's not enough to think good thoughts. You have to feel, 'I can change things.' "
How do you explain such recent behavior?
In past years, "the response to apparently altruistic acts has been: 'People are basically selfish. The only reason they help each other is that they think they'll get something out of it,' " says University of Wisconsin philosopher Elliott Sober. Cynical as it seems, that judgment was the logical lesson to draw from decades of theory and research. Biologists believed that, evolutionarily speaking, we're all on our own, and psychologists subscribed to the "behaviorist" view that people are motivated only by rewards and punishments.
But that gloomy view is brightening as scientists begin to look on the sunny side of human nature. Psychologists are finding that our motivations may include a genuine desire to help others, and biologists now say humans evolved to be altruistic because groups in which members help each other fare better than those in which each member stands alone. For the first time, science is acknowledging that genuine altruism exists - and is as basic to human nature as selfishness.
Everywhere in our culture, altruism is gaining attention: Economists are realizing that real people aren't like the "rational actor" of their neat theories, whose choices are dictated solely by self-interest. Anthropologists now know our ancient ancestors were not lone hunters, but helped one another gather food. Even in the cutthroat world of business, teams are the trend and cooperation the new name of the game.
Today, charitable giving is up and a new generation of high-profile benefactors has managed to make philanthropy chic. Along with the eye-popping wealth of tycoons such as Ted Turner and Bill Gates has come equally outsized generosity, such as Turner's $1 billion bequest to the United Nations and Gates' $11.3 billion endowment to, among other things, buy computers for public libraries.
The difference is nurture
Advocates of egoism, as the anti-altruism position is known, say people help others only to relieve their own discomfort. Fine, thought University of Kansas psychologist Daniel Batson: We'll design an experiment that makes it easy to turn away from others' suffering. But even when offered an escape from watching a woman receive (simulated) electric shocks, two thirds of the college students in his study instead chose to receive shocks in her place.
And anyone who thinks we help others just to feel good should hear the research of David Schroeder, a University of Arkansas psychologist. He arranged for subjects to believe their mood wouldn't change, no matter what they did when confronted with an ill woman who was having trouble calling for assistance. Yet more than two thirds volunteered to help. Going in, Schroeder expected evidence of selfishness: "To our surprise, we found there are at least some circumstances and some times when altruism does happen."
Why do some help and others don't? The difference lies in our environments. "A seed will only become a flower if it gets sun and water," as Louis Gottschalk, a psychiatry professor at the University of California-Irvine, puts it. The sunshine, in this case, is often parental care and attention. Studies of altruists have found these triggers in childhood:
Loving parents who instilled healthy self-esteem.
Moms and dads who modeled selfless behavior. "Just telling your kids to be altruistic is not enough. You have to do it, too," says Jane Piliavin, a sociologist at the University of Wisconsin. "Adults who volunteer and intend to continue volunteering are the ones who report that their parents were volunteers."
Parents who inculcated a moral code. Altruists "learned early on that it's wrong to hurt, it's wrong to oppress, it's wrong to exclude," says sociologist Samuel Oliner of California's Humboldt State University. The same conditions seem to produce "heroic altruists" - people who risk their lives - and ordinary folks who give in less spectacular but no less generous ways. (Oliner knows heroism: As a child in wartime Poland, a townswoman saved him from Nazis.)
Culture's selfish pull
Even parents who do everything right have to fight the cultural tide. "We know human nature has the capacity to be selfish and altruistic, so the question becomes: What does our society do to encourage one or the other?" Piliavin asks. Her rueful answer: "Our culture strongly encourages looking out for No. 1."
America's consumerism can put things before people. Our full-steam-ahead economy leaves some behind. And our tradition of rugged individualism elevates the one above the many. Surveys show that while 80% of us agree that citizens should be involved in their communities, far fewer - 49% - actually volunteer. "We're a society of busy, involved people who have a lot of commitments," says University of Minnesota psychologist Mark Snyder. "It's easy to endorse altruism. It's harder to figure out, 'Where am I going to find those five extra hours a week?' "
A prescription for altruism
Altruism isn't out of reach for any of us, even those who weren't well-parented or who have never been the do-gooder type.
Begin by giving others the benefit of the doubt. "There's evidence," Sober says, "that people's beliefs about human nature [whether people are basically selfish or altruistic] influence how they behave in situations in which they see someone in need." Instead of forcing a selflessness you don't feel, try putting yourself in situations - the local soup kitchen, a children's shelter - where your sympathy is likely to be evoked. You may feel stirrings of altruism in spite of yourself.
Then, just do it - and do it again. Piliavin, who studies the reasons people give blood, says repeat donors make it "part of their sense of self, so that if they were to stop they would feel like they had lost something of themselves. Also, other people start to view you as 'the kind of person' who helps. Then you have both internal and external encouragement to continue."
Finally, don't think of service as a sacrifice or a chore, but as an opportunity.
It's here that social science has in a sense come full circle: Volunteers who think they are getting something back, such as new friends or new skills, are most likely to keep giving, Snyder's studies show. Their motives may not be entirely selfless, "but these are the people who make the most sustained contribution to society," says Snyder. "I see that as a win-win situation."
Annie Murphy Paul learned about altruism from her father, a social worker who helps abused and neglected children.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Want to have a more altruistic personality?
Cultivate these traits.
Empathy. Altruists easily imagine what it's like to be in another's shoes.
An urge to give. "People who are altruistic have the genuine desire
to see others prosper," says philosopher Elliott Sober. "They don't have to fight against some stronger tendency to keep the cookie for themselves."
Tolerance. Altruists tend to reject stereotypes and to have friends
from different racial, ethnic and religious groups.
A keen sense of justice. They protest unfair treatment of others.
Religious, in a particular way. Altruists have "a kind of spirituality that believes we all belong to the human family," says sociologist Samuel Oliner. "It's a belief that everyone is part of a common universe."
A history of generosity. They make helping people a habit.
Confidence. "Altruistic people have a strong sense that they can shape their destinies," says University of South Florida psychologist Louis Penner. "They have a great deal of self-confidence, bordering on arrogance. It's not enough to think good thoughts. You have to feel, 'I can change things.' "
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三字经英文版
人之初 性本善 性相近 习相远
Men at their birth,
are naturally good.
Their natures are much the same;
their habits become widely different.
苟不教 性乃迁 教之道 贵以专
If follishly there is no teaching,
the nature will deteriorate.
The right way in teaching,
is to attach the utmost importance
in thoroughness.
昔孟母 择邻处 子不学 断机杼
Of old, the mother of Mencius
chose a neighbourhood
and when her child would not learn,
she broke the shuttle from the loom.
窦燕山 有义方 教五子 名俱扬
Tou of the Swallow Hills
had the right method
He taugh five son,
each of whom raised the family reputation.
养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰
To feed without teaching,
is the father's fault.
To teach without severity,
is the teacher's laziness.
子不学 非所宜 幼不学 老何为
If the child does not learn,
this is not as it should be.
If he does not learn while young,
what will he be when old ?
玉不琢 不成器 人不学 不知义
If jade is not polished,
it cannot become a thing of use.
If a man does not learn,
he cannot know his duty towards his neighbour.
为人子 方少时 亲师友 习礼仪
He who is the son of a man,
when he is young,
should attach himself to his teachers and friends;
and practise ceremonial usages.
香九龄 能温席 孝於亲 所当执
Hsiang, at nine years of age,
could warm (his parent's) bed.
Filial piety towards parents,
is that to which we should hold fast.
融四岁 能让梨 弟於长 宜先知
Jung, at four years of age,
could yield the (bigger) pears.
To behave as a younger brother towards elders,
is one of the first things to know.
首孝弟 次见闻 知某数 识某文
Begin with filial piety and fraternal love,
and then see and hear .
Learn to count,
and learn to read.
一而十 十而百 百而千 千而万
units and tens,
then tens and hundreds,
hundreds and thousands,
thousands and then tens of thousands.
三才者 天地人 三光者 日月星
The three forces,
are heaven, earth and man.
The three luminaries,
are the sun, the moon and the stars.
三纲者 君臣义 父子亲 夫妇顺
The three bonds,
are the obligation between sovereign and subject,
the love between father and child,
the harmony between husband and wife.
曰春夏 曰秋冬 此四时 运不穷
We speak of spring and summer,
we speak of autumn and winter,
These four seasons,
revolve without ceasing.
曰南北 曰西东 此四方 应乎中
We speak of North and South,
we speak of East and West,
These four points,
respond to the requirements of the centre.
人之初 性本善 性相近 习相远
Men at their birth,
are naturally good.
Their natures are much the same;
their habits become widely different.
苟不教 性乃迁 教之道 贵以专
If follishly there is no teaching,
the nature will deteriorate.
The right way in teaching,
is to attach the utmost importance
in thoroughness.
昔孟母 择邻处 子不学 断机杼
Of old, the mother of Mencius
chose a neighbourhood
and when her child would not learn,
she broke the shuttle from the loom.
窦燕山 有义方 教五子 名俱扬
Tou of the Swallow Hills
had the right method
He taugh five son,
each of whom raised the family reputation.
养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰
To feed without teaching,
is the father's fault.
To teach without severity,
is the teacher's laziness.
子不学 非所宜 幼不学 老何为
If the child does not learn,
this is not as it should be.
If he does not learn while young,
what will he be when old ?
玉不琢 不成器 人不学 不知义
If jade is not polished,
it cannot become a thing of use.
If a man does not learn,
he cannot know his duty towards his neighbour.
为人子 方少时 亲师友 习礼仪
He who is the son of a man,
when he is young,
should attach himself to his teachers and friends;
and practise ceremonial usages.
香九龄 能温席 孝於亲 所当执
Hsiang, at nine years of age,
could warm (his parent's) bed.
Filial piety towards parents,
is that to which we should hold fast.
融四岁 能让梨 弟於长 宜先知
Jung, at four years of age,
could yield the (bigger) pears.
To behave as a younger brother towards elders,
is one of the first things to know.
首孝弟 次见闻 知某数 识某文
Begin with filial piety and fraternal love,
and then see and hear .
Learn to count,
and learn to read.
一而十 十而百 百而千 千而万
units and tens,
then tens and hundreds,
hundreds and thousands,
thousands and then tens of thousands.
三才者 天地人 三光者 日月星
The three forces,
are heaven, earth and man.
The three luminaries,
are the sun, the moon and the stars.
三纲者 君臣义 父子亲 夫妇顺
The three bonds,
are the obligation between sovereign and subject,
the love between father and child,
the harmony between husband and wife.
曰春夏 曰秋冬 此四时 运不穷
We speak of spring and summer,
we speak of autumn and winter,
These four seasons,
revolve without ceasing.
曰南北 曰西东 此四方 应乎中
We speak of North and South,
we speak of East and West,
These four points,
respond to the requirements of the centre.
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它和Man's nature at birth is good.是一样的，指人之初，性本善。
参考资料： http://dj.iciba.com/
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人性本善。
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人之初性本善.
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