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Poverty and war on the environment great harm
In the past 200 years, human society has accumulated vast material wealth, poverty at the same time also increase. Historically, both the Enclosure Movement in the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal's colonial overseas or in North America on the Indian mainland to speed up the net altogether, the development of capitalism in each stage accompanied by cruel plunder. Of the world's two world wars and hundreds of large and small wars. And for almost all land, resources and markets. In addition, developed countries also to the so-called civilized form of courtesy and to win most of the world's consumption of natural resources, in fact, reduce or even taken away the economic development of poor countries. As a result, the development of capitalism not only bring home the confrontation between rich and poor, but rich and poor countries caused by the opposition. Today, the world's poverty is still very serious, the number of poor continues to grow: in 1985 to 10 million in 1990 to increase to 1.1 billion, about the world's total population of 1 / 5.
Poverty is in many parts of the excessive use of resources and environmental pollution, the main reason. For those who barely eke out an existence of abject poverty, the overriding need to survive. To maintain their daily life has been hard-pressed to live, there is no spare capacity to take into tomorrow, let alone improve the environment, in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, as well as some parts of Asia, forcing poor farmers on land overload The operation, resulting in soil degradation and salinization; in the tropics, deforestation, land reclamation of a very serious problem, caused by soil erosion, land quickly lost productivity. Poverty and resource depletion, environmental degradation as both cause and effect, and the formation of a vicious circle.
Environmental damage and pollution is the same, the total amount of pollutant emission of developed countries, but on the whole is under control and began to decline in many parts of the work environment is in effect. On the other hand, developing countries, environmental damage and pollution is getting worse. Due to poverty, they can not refuse low-cost production of high pollution, the temptation will be even more reluctant to limited resources for pollution control. For those countries, the current economic growth is the number one goal, one also can not attend to consider the future price. Pollution and environmental damage is the cross-border, the people of other countries were forced to share the costs and consequences. For example. Mexico in the north industrial area a large number of fossil fuel consumption, as the wind direction of the reasons the United States by victims of acid rain; the United States in the Northeast Industrial acid rain also brought to Canada. To resolve cross-border issues such very difficult and the results often depend on the balance of power among nations, so they do not have justice.
In many developing countries, it seems that today's environmental problems are made most of the affected countries to act in the past. Accumulation in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide and harmful substances such as HCFCs is the case, the world's forest area and reduce soil degradation as well. As a result, the pollution and environmental issues, developed countries should shoulder greater responsibilities, including developing countries to provide technical and financial assistance so that they have the ability to maintain the country's economic growth at the same time improve the environment. If developing countries requires developed countries to adopt environmental standards and to absorb the cost of all, is tantamount to depriving them of the opportunity to develop it is not fair.
International and domestic social and political conflict in the extreme form of war. In the history of the various direct cause of many wars: ethnic, religious, ideological, and so on and so on; However, in the final analysis, the economic interests of the conflict is the most fundamental reason. In order to compete for resources and people for war, but war and large-scale consumption of scarce resources, use of resources produced by the destruction of wealth, destruction of people's living environment until the eradication of human life.
In this century mankind has experienced two world wars. The number of people killed in the First World War, more than 8,000,000, and wounded up to 22,000,000 of which 7,000,000 were maimed for life. Property losses of about 260,000,000,000 U.S. dollars. World War II, the larger, more heavy losses. According to incomplete statistics, countries of the world total of about 100,000,000 human casualties, property damage more than 40,000 million.
In the early 1991's outbreak of the war in the oceans, damage is the largest oil field. At that time, there are 1 080 Kuwait oil wells, about 950 were damaged during the war, in which I was more than 600 fire, burning every day about 600 million barrels of oil valued at 120,000,000 U.S. dollars. The oil fires caused by human history's worst environmental pollution. Blot out the Sun during the day and dark smoke, noon and three-meter visibility, however, the raging flames at night Ying-Che days, mushroom-like smoke clouds directly. Burning oil wells in the atmosphere to the monthly release of 675,000 tons of soot inside full of carbon black particles, sulfur dioxide, nitric acid, the cancer-causing hydrocarbons and the highly toxic dioxin compounds. People inhalation after chest tightness, dyspnea, heart disease and respiratory diseases increased dramatically. Some of the toxic substances will gradually enter the food chain, resulting in the next few decades, cancer patients and abnormal surge in the number of people. Sulfuric acid and nitric acid to produce acid rain and damage around the desert country's most valuable agricultural land and vegetation. The flow of the Gulf of tens of millions of barrels of oil at sea to form a large area of the film, only an oil-covered seabirds can not afford desperately struggling due to their inability to take off to die in the sea. Film and thick smoke covered the sun, plankton and thus lost the life of the city as a whole is facing the sea off the danger of biological chain. Near the Persian Gulf is a closed environment, the water flow is very slow, about 200 years to completely replace all the water. Therefore, the ecosystem in the region and the resumption of the fishery will be very difficult. Not only that, in the Gulf of disaster may also affect the Asian monsoon, India and Southeast Asia led to reduced rainfall and causing drought.
贫困和战争对环境的极大危害
在过去200多年里，人类社会积累了巨大的物质财富，与此同时贫困在也增长。从历史上看，无论是英国的圈地运动，西班牙、葡萄牙的海外殖民，还是在北美大陆对印第安人的赶净杀绝，资本主义发展的每一阶段都伴随着残酷的掠夺。本世界的两次世界大战与大大小小数百次战争。几乎都与争夺土地、资源和市场有关。此外，发达国家还以所谓文明礼貌形式夺取并消耗全球的大部分自然资源，事实上减少以至剥夺了穷国发展经济的可能性。因此，资本主义的发展不仅带来国内的贫富对立，而且造成穷国和富国的对立。时至今日，全球的贫困现象仍很严重，穷人的数量继续增长：1985年为10亿，而1990年就增加到11亿，大约占世界总人口的1／5。
贫困是许多地区资源利用过度和环境污染的主要原因。对那些勉强度日的赤贫者来说，生存的需要压倒一切。他们维持每日的生活已经捉襟见肘，根本没有余力去考虑明天，更谈不上改善环境了，在撒哈拉沙漠以南的非洲、中东和北非以及亚洲 的某些地区，贫困迫使农民对土地进行超负荷的经营，从而造成土壤的退化和盐碱化；而在热带地区，毁林开荒的现象十分严重，由此造成水土流失，很快就使土地的生产力丧失殆尽。贫困和资源耗竭、环境恶化互为因果，形成了又一个恶性循环。
环境破坏和污染的情况也一样，发达国家排放的污染物总量大，但总体上看已受到控制并开始下降，许多地方的环境治理工作很在成效。另一方面，发展中国家的环境破坏和污染正在加剧。由于贫穷，他们无法拒绝低成本高污染生产方式的诱惑，更不愿将有限的资源用于治理污染。对这些国家来说，当前的经济增长是第一位的目标，一时还顾不上考虑未来的代价。污染和环境的破坏是跨国界的，其他国家的人民被迫分担其后果和代价。例如。墨西哥北部工业区大量消耗矿物燃料，由于风向的原因，美国深受酸雨之害；而美国东北部的工业又把酸雨带给加拿大。解决这类跨国界问题很困难，其结果往往取决于国家间力量的对比，因而缺乏公正。
在许多发展中国家看来，今天的环境问题大多数是发害国家地过去的行为造成的。大气中积累的二氧化碳和氟氯烃等有害物质是这样，全球森林面积减少和土壤退化也是这样。因此，在治理污染和环境问题上，发达国家应当承担更大的责任，包括向发展中国家提供技术和经济援助，使他们有国能力在保持经济增长的同时改善环境。如果今天就要求发展中国家采用发达国家的环境标准，并且自行承担全部代价，那么，无异于剥夺了他们发展的机会，是十分不公平的。
国际间及国内社会和政治冲突的极端形式是战争。历史上各种战争的直接原因很多：民族、宗教、意识形态等等，不一而足；但是，归根结底经济利益的冲突是最根本的原因。人们为了争夺资源而进行战争，但是战争又大规模地消耗稀缺的资源，毁灭利用资源生产出来的财富，破坏人们赖以生存的环境，直至消灭人类的生命。
本世纪人类已经经历了两次世界大战。第一次世界大战丧生的人数超过800万，受伤者高达2200万其中700万人终身残废。财产损失大约 2600亿美元。第二次世界大战的规模更大，损失也更惨重。据不完全统计，世界各国总伤亡人类约1亿，财产损失4万多亿美元。
在1991年初爆发的海洋战争中，破坏最大的是油田。科威特当时有1 080口油井，大约有950口在战争中遭到破坏，其中600多口被点燃，每天烧掉大约600万桶石油，价值1.2亿美元。这场石油火灾造成了人类历史最惨重的环境污染。白天浓烟滚滚黑云蔽日，中午时分能见度不过三米，入夜烈火熊熊映天彻地，蘑菇状烟直达云霄。燃烧的油井每月向大气层释放67.5万吨烟灰，里面饱含炭黑微粒、二氧化硫、硝酸、致癌的烃和剧毒的二恶英混合物。人们吸入后感到胸闷、气急、心脏病和呼吸系统疾病急剧增加。一些有毒物质将逐渐进入食物链，导致今后几十年里癌症病人和各种畸形人数量激增。硫酸和硝酸将产生酸雨，破坏周围沙漠国家极其宝贵的植被和农田。流向波斯湾的数千万桶原油在海上形成了大面积的油膜，一只只沾满油污的海鸟绝望地挣扎不起，因无力起飞而死在海中。浓烟和油膜遮住了阳光，浮游生物因而失去了生命之源，整个海中生物链面临断绝的危险。波斯湾是一个近乎封闭的生态环境，海水流动十分缓慢，大约要200年时间全部海水才能完全更换。因此该地区生态系统和渔业生产的恢复将是非常困难的。不仅如此，海湾的灾难还可能影响亚洲季风，导致印度和东南亚地区雨量减少并造成干旱。
In the past 200 years, human society has accumulated vast material wealth, poverty at the same time also increase. Historically, both the Enclosure Movement in the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal's colonial overseas or in North America on the Indian mainland to speed up the net altogether, the development of capitalism in each stage accompanied by cruel plunder. Of the world's two world wars and hundreds of large and small wars. And for almost all land, resources and markets. In addition, developed countries also to the so-called civilized form of courtesy and to win most of the world's consumption of natural resources, in fact, reduce or even taken away the economic development of poor countries. As a result, the development of capitalism not only bring home the confrontation between rich and poor, but rich and poor countries caused by the opposition. Today, the world's poverty is still very serious, the number of poor continues to grow: in 1985 to 10 million in 1990 to increase to 1.1 billion, about the world's total population of 1 / 5.
Poverty is in many parts of the excessive use of resources and environmental pollution, the main reason. For those who barely eke out an existence of abject poverty, the overriding need to survive. To maintain their daily life has been hard-pressed to live, there is no spare capacity to take into tomorrow, let alone improve the environment, in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, as well as some parts of Asia, forcing poor farmers on land overload The operation, resulting in soil degradation and salinization; in the tropics, deforestation, land reclamation of a very serious problem, caused by soil erosion, land quickly lost productivity. Poverty and resource depletion, environmental degradation as both cause and effect, and the formation of a vicious circle.
Environmental damage and pollution is the same, the total amount of pollutant emission of developed countries, but on the whole is under control and began to decline in many parts of the work environment is in effect. On the other hand, developing countries, environmental damage and pollution is getting worse. Due to poverty, they can not refuse low-cost production of high pollution, the temptation will be even more reluctant to limited resources for pollution control. For those countries, the current economic growth is the number one goal, one also can not attend to consider the future price. Pollution and environmental damage is the cross-border, the people of other countries were forced to share the costs and consequences. For example. Mexico in the north industrial area a large number of fossil fuel consumption, as the wind direction of the reasons the United States by victims of acid rain; the United States in the Northeast Industrial acid rain also brought to Canada. To resolve cross-border issues such very difficult and the results often depend on the balance of power among nations, so they do not have justice.
In many developing countries, it seems that today's environmental problems are made most of the affected countries to act in the past. Accumulation in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide and harmful substances such as HCFCs is the case, the world's forest area and reduce soil degradation as well. As a result, the pollution and environmental issues, developed countries should shoulder greater responsibilities, including developing countries to provide technical and financial assistance so that they have the ability to maintain the country's economic growth at the same time improve the environment. If developing countries requires developed countries to adopt environmental standards and to absorb the cost of all, is tantamount to depriving them of the opportunity to develop it is not fair.
International and domestic social and political conflict in the extreme form of war. In the history of the various direct cause of many wars: ethnic, religious, ideological, and so on and so on; However, in the final analysis, the economic interests of the conflict is the most fundamental reason. In order to compete for resources and people for war, but war and large-scale consumption of scarce resources, use of resources produced by the destruction of wealth, destruction of people's living environment until the eradication of human life.
In this century mankind has experienced two world wars. The number of people killed in the First World War, more than 8,000,000, and wounded up to 22,000,000 of which 7,000,000 were maimed for life. Property losses of about 260,000,000,000 U.S. dollars. World War II, the larger, more heavy losses. According to incomplete statistics, countries of the world total of about 100,000,000 human casualties, property damage more than 40,000 million.
In the early 1991's outbreak of the war in the oceans, damage is the largest oil field. At that time, there are 1 080 Kuwait oil wells, about 950 were damaged during the war, in which I was more than 600 fire, burning every day about 600 million barrels of oil valued at 120,000,000 U.S. dollars. The oil fires caused by human history's worst environmental pollution. Blot out the Sun during the day and dark smoke, noon and three-meter visibility, however, the raging flames at night Ying-Che days, mushroom-like smoke clouds directly. Burning oil wells in the atmosphere to the monthly release of 675,000 tons of soot inside full of carbon black particles, sulfur dioxide, nitric acid, the cancer-causing hydrocarbons and the highly toxic dioxin compounds. People inhalation after chest tightness, dyspnea, heart disease and respiratory diseases increased dramatically. Some of the toxic substances will gradually enter the food chain, resulting in the next few decades, cancer patients and abnormal surge in the number of people. Sulfuric acid and nitric acid to produce acid rain and damage around the desert country's most valuable agricultural land and vegetation. The flow of the Gulf of tens of millions of barrels of oil at sea to form a large area of the film, only an oil-covered seabirds can not afford desperately struggling due to their inability to take off to die in the sea. Film and thick smoke covered the sun, plankton and thus lost the life of the city as a whole is facing the sea off the danger of biological chain. Near the Persian Gulf is a closed environment, the water flow is very slow, about 200 years to completely replace all the water. Therefore, the ecosystem in the region and the resumption of the fishery will be very difficult. Not only that, in the Gulf of disaster may also affect the Asian monsoon, India and Southeast Asia led to reduced rainfall and causing drought.
贫困和战争对环境的极大危害
在过去200多年里，人类社会积累了巨大的物质财富，与此同时贫困在也增长。从历史上看，无论是英国的圈地运动，西班牙、葡萄牙的海外殖民，还是在北美大陆对印第安人的赶净杀绝，资本主义发展的每一阶段都伴随着残酷的掠夺。本世界的两次世界大战与大大小小数百次战争。几乎都与争夺土地、资源和市场有关。此外，发达国家还以所谓文明礼貌形式夺取并消耗全球的大部分自然资源，事实上减少以至剥夺了穷国发展经济的可能性。因此，资本主义的发展不仅带来国内的贫富对立，而且造成穷国和富国的对立。时至今日，全球的贫困现象仍很严重，穷人的数量继续增长：1985年为10亿，而1990年就增加到11亿，大约占世界总人口的1／5。
贫困是许多地区资源利用过度和环境污染的主要原因。对那些勉强度日的赤贫者来说，生存的需要压倒一切。他们维持每日的生活已经捉襟见肘，根本没有余力去考虑明天，更谈不上改善环境了，在撒哈拉沙漠以南的非洲、中东和北非以及亚洲 的某些地区，贫困迫使农民对土地进行超负荷的经营，从而造成土壤的退化和盐碱化；而在热带地区，毁林开荒的现象十分严重，由此造成水土流失，很快就使土地的生产力丧失殆尽。贫困和资源耗竭、环境恶化互为因果，形成了又一个恶性循环。
环境破坏和污染的情况也一样，发达国家排放的污染物总量大，但总体上看已受到控制并开始下降，许多地方的环境治理工作很在成效。另一方面，发展中国家的环境破坏和污染正在加剧。由于贫穷，他们无法拒绝低成本高污染生产方式的诱惑，更不愿将有限的资源用于治理污染。对这些国家来说，当前的经济增长是第一位的目标，一时还顾不上考虑未来的代价。污染和环境的破坏是跨国界的，其他国家的人民被迫分担其后果和代价。例如。墨西哥北部工业区大量消耗矿物燃料，由于风向的原因，美国深受酸雨之害；而美国东北部的工业又把酸雨带给加拿大。解决这类跨国界问题很困难，其结果往往取决于国家间力量的对比，因而缺乏公正。
在许多发展中国家看来，今天的环境问题大多数是发害国家地过去的行为造成的。大气中积累的二氧化碳和氟氯烃等有害物质是这样，全球森林面积减少和土壤退化也是这样。因此，在治理污染和环境问题上，发达国家应当承担更大的责任，包括向发展中国家提供技术和经济援助，使他们有国能力在保持经济增长的同时改善环境。如果今天就要求发展中国家采用发达国家的环境标准，并且自行承担全部代价，那么，无异于剥夺了他们发展的机会，是十分不公平的。
国际间及国内社会和政治冲突的极端形式是战争。历史上各种战争的直接原因很多：民族、宗教、意识形态等等，不一而足；但是，归根结底经济利益的冲突是最根本的原因。人们为了争夺资源而进行战争，但是战争又大规模地消耗稀缺的资源，毁灭利用资源生产出来的财富，破坏人们赖以生存的环境，直至消灭人类的生命。
本世纪人类已经经历了两次世界大战。第一次世界大战丧生的人数超过800万，受伤者高达2200万其中700万人终身残废。财产损失大约 2600亿美元。第二次世界大战的规模更大，损失也更惨重。据不完全统计，世界各国总伤亡人类约1亿，财产损失4万多亿美元。
在1991年初爆发的海洋战争中，破坏最大的是油田。科威特当时有1 080口油井，大约有950口在战争中遭到破坏，其中600多口被点燃，每天烧掉大约600万桶石油，价值1.2亿美元。这场石油火灾造成了人类历史最惨重的环境污染。白天浓烟滚滚黑云蔽日，中午时分能见度不过三米，入夜烈火熊熊映天彻地，蘑菇状烟直达云霄。燃烧的油井每月向大气层释放67.5万吨烟灰，里面饱含炭黑微粒、二氧化硫、硝酸、致癌的烃和剧毒的二恶英混合物。人们吸入后感到胸闷、气急、心脏病和呼吸系统疾病急剧增加。一些有毒物质将逐渐进入食物链，导致今后几十年里癌症病人和各种畸形人数量激增。硫酸和硝酸将产生酸雨，破坏周围沙漠国家极其宝贵的植被和农田。流向波斯湾的数千万桶原油在海上形成了大面积的油膜，一只只沾满油污的海鸟绝望地挣扎不起，因无力起飞而死在海中。浓烟和油膜遮住了阳光，浮游生物因而失去了生命之源，整个海中生物链面临断绝的危险。波斯湾是一个近乎封闭的生态环境，海水流动十分缓慢，大约要200年时间全部海水才能完全更换。因此该地区生态系统和渔业生产的恢复将是非常困难的。不仅如此，海湾的灾难还可能影响亚洲季风，导致印度和东南亚地区雨量减少并造成干旱。
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War
Nuclear Weapon Effects
Nuclear detonations are the most devastating of the weapons of mass destruction. One needs only to recall the pictures from Hiroshima or the international chaos over the accidental, but huge radiation release from the Chernobyl power plant. The damage caused by the Chernobyl incident was much larger than would have been expected from a nuclear blast of about 20 kilotons, but was comparable to what might result from a small nuclear war.
A nuclear attack causes severe environmental damage, including blasts, thermal pulses, neutrons, x- and gamma-rays, radiation, electromagnetic pulses (EMP), and ionization of the upper atmosphere. Depending on the environment in which the nuclear device is detonated, blast effects are manifested as ground shock, water shock, blueout, cratering, and large amounts of dust and radioactive fallout. All pose serious problems for the survival of humans, animals, and plants.
The energy of a nuclear explosion is transferred to the surrounding area in three distinct forms: blast; thermal radiation; and nuclear radiation. The distribution of energy among these forms will depend on the yield of the weapon, the location of the blast, and the type of the environment. On average, for a normal sized bomb, the effects are as follows:
35% of it comes as thermal radiation; made up of a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, including infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light and some soft x-ray emitted at the time of the explosion;
15% of it comes as nuclear radiation; including 5% as initial ionizing radiation consisting chiefly of neutrons and gamma rays emitted within the first minute after detonation, and 10% as residual nuclear radiation. Residual nuclear radiation is the hazard in fallout.
A lot of variation will occur with differences in yield or location of the detonation.
Because of the massive amounts of energy generated per unit mass in a nuclear detonation, temperatures of several tens of million degrees centigrade develop in the immediate area of the detonation. This is in marked contrast to the few thousand degrees of a conventional explosion. At these very high temperatures the nonfissioned parts of the nuclear weapon are vaporized. The atoms do not release the energy as kinetic energy but release it in the form of large amounts of electromagnetic radiation. In an air detonation, this electromagnetic radiation, consisting mostly of x-rays, is absorbed within a few meters of the point of detonation by the surrounding atmosphere, heating it to extremely high temperatures and forming a white hot sphere of air and gaseous residues, the mighty fireball. Immediately upon formation, the fireball begins to grow rapidly and rise like a hot air balloon. Within about a millisecond after the explosion, the diameter of the fireball from a 1 megaton air burst is 150 meters. This increases to a maximum of 2,200 meters within 10 seconds, while the fireball rises at the rate of 100 meters per second. The initial expansion of the fireball compresses the surrounding atmosphere, producing a powerful blast wave.
As it expands toward its maximum size, the fireball cools, and after about a minute the temperature has decreased so that it no longer gives off significant amounts of thermal radiation. The combination of the upward movement and the cooling of the fireball gives rise to the formation of the characteristic mushroom-shaped cloud. As the fireball cools, the vaporized materials in it condense to form a cloud of solid particles. Following an air burst, condensed droplets of water give it a typical white cloudlike appearance. In the case of a surface burst, this cloud will also contain large quantities of dirt and other debris which are vaporized when the fireball touches the earth's surface or are sucked up by the strong updrafts afterwards, giving the cloud a dirty brown appearance. The dirt and debris become contaminated with the radioisotopes generated by the explosion or activated by neutron radiation and fall to earth as fallout.
The effects of blast, heat, and nuclear radiation will mostly be determined by the height at which the weapon is detonated. Nuclear explosions are generally classified as air bursts, surface bursts, subsurface bursts, or high altitude bursts.
Air Bursts
An air burst is an explosion in which a weapon is detonated in the air at an altitude below 30 kilometers but still does not make contact with the ground. After this sort of burst, the blast will cause major damage. The altitude of an air burst can be varied to obtain maximum blast effects, maximum thermal effects, desired radiation effects, or a balanced combination of these effects.
Surface Burst
A surface burst is an explosion in which a weapon is detonated on the ground or the surface of the water. Under these conditions, the area affected by blast, thermal radiation, and initial nuclear radiation will be less extensive than for an air burst of similar yield, except in the region of ground zero where destruction is concentrated. In contrast with air bursts, local fallout can be a hazard over a much larger downwind area than that which is affected by blast and thermal radiation.
Subsurface Burst
A subsurface burst is an explosion in which the point of the detonation is beneath the surface of land or water. Cratering will generally result from an underground burst, just as for a surface burst. If the bomb does not penetrate the surface, it will be almost just like a surface burst. If the burst is shallow enough to penetrate the surface, blast, thermal, and initial nuclear radiation effects will be present, but will be less than for a surface burst of comparable yield. Local fallout will be very heavy if penetration occurs.
High Altitude Burst
A high altitude burst is one in which the weapon is exploded at such an altitude (above 30 kilometers) that initial soft x-rays generated by the detonation dissipate energy as heat in a much larger volume of air molecules. There the fireball is much larger and expands much more rapidly. The ionizing radiation from the high altitude burst can travel for hundreds of miles before being absorbed. Significant ionization of the upper atmosphere can occur. They also lead to generation of an intense electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which can significantly degrade performance of or destroy sophisticated electronic equipment.
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Nuclear Weapon Effects
Nuclear detonations are the most devastating of the weapons of mass destruction. One needs only to recall the pictures from Hiroshima or the international chaos over the accidental, but huge radiation release from the Chernobyl power plant. The damage caused by the Chernobyl incident was much larger than would have been expected from a nuclear blast of about 20 kilotons, but was comparable to what might result from a small nuclear war.
A nuclear attack causes severe environmental damage, including blasts, thermal pulses, neutrons, x- and gamma-rays, radiation, electromagnetic pulses (EMP), and ionization of the upper atmosphere. Depending on the environment in which the nuclear device is detonated, blast effects are manifested as ground shock, water shock, blueout, cratering, and large amounts of dust and radioactive fallout. All pose serious problems for the survival of humans, animals, and plants.
The energy of a nuclear explosion is transferred to the surrounding area in three distinct forms: blast; thermal radiation; and nuclear radiation. The distribution of energy among these forms will depend on the yield of the weapon, the location of the blast, and the type of the environment. On average, for a normal sized bomb, the effects are as follows:
35% of it comes as thermal radiation; made up of a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, including infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light and some soft x-ray emitted at the time of the explosion;
15% of it comes as nuclear radiation; including 5% as initial ionizing radiation consisting chiefly of neutrons and gamma rays emitted within the first minute after detonation, and 10% as residual nuclear radiation. Residual nuclear radiation is the hazard in fallout.
A lot of variation will occur with differences in yield or location of the detonation.
Because of the massive amounts of energy generated per unit mass in a nuclear detonation, temperatures of several tens of million degrees centigrade develop in the immediate area of the detonation. This is in marked contrast to the few thousand degrees of a conventional explosion. At these very high temperatures the nonfissioned parts of the nuclear weapon are vaporized. The atoms do not release the energy as kinetic energy but release it in the form of large amounts of electromagnetic radiation. In an air detonation, this electromagnetic radiation, consisting mostly of x-rays, is absorbed within a few meters of the point of detonation by the surrounding atmosphere, heating it to extremely high temperatures and forming a white hot sphere of air and gaseous residues, the mighty fireball. Immediately upon formation, the fireball begins to grow rapidly and rise like a hot air balloon. Within about a millisecond after the explosion, the diameter of the fireball from a 1 megaton air burst is 150 meters. This increases to a maximum of 2,200 meters within 10 seconds, while the fireball rises at the rate of 100 meters per second. The initial expansion of the fireball compresses the surrounding atmosphere, producing a powerful blast wave.
As it expands toward its maximum size, the fireball cools, and after about a minute the temperature has decreased so that it no longer gives off significant amounts of thermal radiation. The combination of the upward movement and the cooling of the fireball gives rise to the formation of the characteristic mushroom-shaped cloud. As the fireball cools, the vaporized materials in it condense to form a cloud of solid particles. Following an air burst, condensed droplets of water give it a typical white cloudlike appearance. In the case of a surface burst, this cloud will also contain large quantities of dirt and other debris which are vaporized when the fireball touches the earth's surface or are sucked up by the strong updrafts afterwards, giving the cloud a dirty brown appearance. The dirt and debris become contaminated with the radioisotopes generated by the explosion or activated by neutron radiation and fall to earth as fallout.
The effects of blast, heat, and nuclear radiation will mostly be determined by the height at which the weapon is detonated. Nuclear explosions are generally classified as air bursts, surface bursts, subsurface bursts, or high altitude bursts.
Air Bursts
An air burst is an explosion in which a weapon is detonated in the air at an altitude below 30 kilometers but still does not make contact with the ground. After this sort of burst, the blast will cause major damage. The altitude of an air burst can be varied to obtain maximum blast effects, maximum thermal effects, desired radiation effects, or a balanced combination of these effects.
Surface Burst
A surface burst is an explosion in which a weapon is detonated on the ground or the surface of the water. Under these conditions, the area affected by blast, thermal radiation, and initial nuclear radiation will be less extensive than for an air burst of similar yield, except in the region of ground zero where destruction is concentrated. In contrast with air bursts, local fallout can be a hazard over a much larger downwind area than that which is affected by blast and thermal radiation.
Subsurface Burst
A subsurface burst is an explosion in which the point of the detonation is beneath the surface of land or water. Cratering will generally result from an underground burst, just as for a surface burst. If the bomb does not penetrate the surface, it will be almost just like a surface burst. If the burst is shallow enough to penetrate the surface, blast, thermal, and initial nuclear radiation effects will be present, but will be less than for a surface burst of comparable yield. Local fallout will be very heavy if penetration occurs.
High Altitude Burst
A high altitude burst is one in which the weapon is exploded at such an altitude (above 30 kilometers) that initial soft x-rays generated by the detonation dissipate energy as heat in a much larger volume of air molecules. There the fireball is much larger and expands much more rapidly. The ionizing radiation from the high altitude burst can travel for hundreds of miles before being absorbed. Significant ionization of the upper atmosphere can occur. They also lead to generation of an intense electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which can significantly degrade performance of or destroy sophisticated electronic equipment.
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