求关于吸血鬼的英语短文
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Vampires are mythological or folkloric revenants who subsist by feeding on the blood of the living. In folkloric tales, the undead vampires often visited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in the neighbourhoods they inhabited when they were alive. They wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance, markedly different from today's gaunt, pale vampire which dates from the early Nineteenth Century. Although vampiric entities have been recorded in most cultures, the term vampire was not popularised until the early 18th century, after an influx of vampire superstition into Western Europe from areas where vampire legends were frequent, such as the Balkans and Eastern Europe,[1] although local variants were also known by different names, such as vrykolakas in Greece and strigoi in Romania. This increased level of vampire superstition in Europe led to mass hysteria and in some cases resulted in corpses actually being staked and people being accused of vampirism.
In modern times, however, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as the chupacabra still persists in some cultures. Early folkloric belief in vampires has been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of decomposition after death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalise this, creating the figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death. Porphyria was also linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited.
The charismatic and sophisticated vampire of modern fiction was born in 1819 with the publication of The Vampyre by John Polidori; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century.[2] However, it is Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula which is remembered as the quintessential vampire novel and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend. The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire genre, still popular in the 21st century, with books, films, and television shows. The vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Folk beliefs
2.1 Description and common attributes
2.1.1 Creating vampires
2.1.2 Identifying vampires
2.1.3 Protection
2.2 Ancient beliefs
2.3 Medieval and later European folklore
2.4 Non-European beliefs
2.4.1 Africa
2.4.2 The Americas
2.4.3 Asia
2.5 Modern beliefs
3 Origins of vampire beliefs
3.1 Pathology
3.2 Disease
3.2.1 Porphyria
3.3 Psychopathology
3.4 Vampire bats
4 Connections with werewolves
5 In modern fiction
5.1 Literature
5.2 Film and television
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 External links
Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first appearance of the word vampire in English from 1734, in a travelogue titled Travels of Three English Gentlemen published in the Harleian Miscellany in 1745.[3][4] Vampires had already been discussed in German literature.[5] After Austria gained control of northern Serbia and Oltenia in 1718, officials noted the local practice of exhuming bodies and "killing vampires".[5] These reports, prepared between 1725 and 1732, received widespread publicity.[5]
The English term was derived (possibly via French vampyre) from the German Vampir, in turn thought to be derived in the early 18th century from the Serbian вампир/vampir.[6][7][8][9][10] The Serbian form has parallels in virtually all Slavic languages: Bulgarian вампир (vampir), Czech and Slovak upír, Polish wąpierz, and (perhaps East Slavic-influenced) upiór, Russian упырь (upyr'), Belarusian упыр (upyr), Ukrainian упирь (upir'), from Old Russian упирь (upir'). (Note that many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as "vampir/wampir" subsequently from the West; these are distinct from the original local words for the creature.) The exact etymology is unclear.[11] Among the proposed proto-Slavic forms are *ǫpyrь and *ǫpirь.[12] Like its possible cognate that means "bat" (Czech netopýr, Slovak netopier, Polish nietoperz, Russian нетопырь / netopyr' - a species of bat), the Slavic word might contain a Proto-Indo-European root for "to fly".[12] An older theory is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a Turkic term for "witch" (e.g., Tatar ubyr).[12][13]
The first recorded use of the Old Russian form Упирь (Upir') is commonly believed to be in a document dated 6555 (1047 AD).[14] It is a colophon in a manuscript of the Book of Psalms written by a priest who transcribed the book from Glagolitic into Cyrillic for the Novgorodian Prince Vladimir Yaroslavovich.[15] The priest writes that his name is "Upir' Likhyi " (Упирь Лихый), which means something like "Wicked Vampire" or "Foul Vampire".[16] This apparently strange name has been cited as an example both of surviving paganism and of the use of nicknames as personal names.[17]
Another early use of the Old Russian word is in the anti-pagan treatise "Word of Saint Grigoriy", dated variously to the 11th–13th centuries, where pagan worship of upyri is reported.[18][19]
Folk beliefs
The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia; cultures such as the Mesopotamians, Hebrews, Ancient Greeks, and Romans had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires. However, despite the occurrence of vampire-like creatures in these ancient civilizations, the folklore for the entity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early 18th century Southeastern Europe,[1] when verbal traditions of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published. In most cases, vampires are revenants of evil beings, suicide victims, or witches, but they can also be created by a malevolent spirit possessing a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire. Belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires.
It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, though there are several elements common to many European legends. Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance, and ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour; these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinking of blood. Indeed, blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin and its left eye was often open.[21] It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth, hair, and nails may have grown somewhat, though in general fangs were not a feature.[22]
Other attributes varied greatly from culture to culture; some vampires, such as those found in Transylvanian tales, were gaunt, pale, and had long fingernails, while those from Bulgaria only had one nostril,[23] and Bavarian vampires slept with thumbs crossed and one eye open.[24] Moravian vampires only attacked while naked, and those of Albanian folklore wore high-heeled shoes.[24] As stories of vampires spread throughout the globe to the Americas and elsewhere, so did the varied and sometimes bizarre descriptions of them: Mexican vampires had a bare skull instead of a head,[24] Brazilian vampires had furry feet and vampires from the Rocky Mountains only sucked blood with their noses and from the victim's ears.[24] Common attributes were sometimes described, such as red hair.[24] Some were reported to be able to transform into bats, rats, dogs, wolves, spiders and even moths.[25] From these various legends, works of literature such as Bram Stoker's Dracula, and the influences of historical bloodthirsty figures such as Gilles de Rais, Elizabeth Bathory, and Vlad Ţepeş, the vampire developed into the modern stereotype.[20][24]
Creating vampires
The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore. In Slavic and Chinese traditions, any corpse which was jumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to become one of the undead.[26] A body with a wound which had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk. In Russian folklore, vampires were said to have once been witches or people who had rebelled against the Church while they were alive.[24]
Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent a recently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant. Burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects, such as scythes or sickles,[27] near the grave to satisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise from its coffin. This method resembles the Ancient Greek practice of placing an obolus in the corpse's mouth to pay the toll to cross the River Styx in the underworld; it has been argued that instead, the coin was intended to ward off any evil spirits from entering the body, and this may have influenced later vampire folklore. This tradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about the vrykolakas, in which a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription "Jesus Christ conquers" were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from becoming a vampire.[28] Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the tendons at the knees or placing poppy seeds, millet, or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire; this was intended to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains.[29] Similar Chinese narratives state that if a vampire-like being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain; this is a theme encountered in myths from the Indian subcontinent as well as in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings.[30]
Identifying vampires
Many elaborate rituals were used to identify a vampire. One method of finding a vampire's grave involved leading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on a virgin stallion — the horse would supposedly balk at the grave in question.[24] Generally a black horse was required, though in Albania it should be white.[31] Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism.[32]
Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than expected, plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition.[33] In some cases, when suspected graves were opened, villagers even described the corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face.[34] Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle, sheep, relatives or neighbours. Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor poltergeist-like activity, such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects,[35] and pressing on people in their sleep.
In modern times, however, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as the chupacabra still persists in some cultures. Early folkloric belief in vampires has been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of decomposition after death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalise this, creating the figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death. Porphyria was also linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited.
The charismatic and sophisticated vampire of modern fiction was born in 1819 with the publication of The Vampyre by John Polidori; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century.[2] However, it is Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula which is remembered as the quintessential vampire novel and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend. The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire genre, still popular in the 21st century, with books, films, and television shows. The vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Folk beliefs
2.1 Description and common attributes
2.1.1 Creating vampires
2.1.2 Identifying vampires
2.1.3 Protection
2.2 Ancient beliefs
2.3 Medieval and later European folklore
2.4 Non-European beliefs
2.4.1 Africa
2.4.2 The Americas
2.4.3 Asia
2.5 Modern beliefs
3 Origins of vampire beliefs
3.1 Pathology
3.2 Disease
3.2.1 Porphyria
3.3 Psychopathology
3.4 Vampire bats
4 Connections with werewolves
5 In modern fiction
5.1 Literature
5.2 Film and television
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 External links
Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first appearance of the word vampire in English from 1734, in a travelogue titled Travels of Three English Gentlemen published in the Harleian Miscellany in 1745.[3][4] Vampires had already been discussed in German literature.[5] After Austria gained control of northern Serbia and Oltenia in 1718, officials noted the local practice of exhuming bodies and "killing vampires".[5] These reports, prepared between 1725 and 1732, received widespread publicity.[5]
The English term was derived (possibly via French vampyre) from the German Vampir, in turn thought to be derived in the early 18th century from the Serbian вампир/vampir.[6][7][8][9][10] The Serbian form has parallels in virtually all Slavic languages: Bulgarian вампир (vampir), Czech and Slovak upír, Polish wąpierz, and (perhaps East Slavic-influenced) upiór, Russian упырь (upyr'), Belarusian упыр (upyr), Ukrainian упирь (upir'), from Old Russian упирь (upir'). (Note that many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as "vampir/wampir" subsequently from the West; these are distinct from the original local words for the creature.) The exact etymology is unclear.[11] Among the proposed proto-Slavic forms are *ǫpyrь and *ǫpirь.[12] Like its possible cognate that means "bat" (Czech netopýr, Slovak netopier, Polish nietoperz, Russian нетопырь / netopyr' - a species of bat), the Slavic word might contain a Proto-Indo-European root for "to fly".[12] An older theory is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a Turkic term for "witch" (e.g., Tatar ubyr).[12][13]
The first recorded use of the Old Russian form Упирь (Upir') is commonly believed to be in a document dated 6555 (1047 AD).[14] It is a colophon in a manuscript of the Book of Psalms written by a priest who transcribed the book from Glagolitic into Cyrillic for the Novgorodian Prince Vladimir Yaroslavovich.[15] The priest writes that his name is "Upir' Likhyi " (Упирь Лихый), which means something like "Wicked Vampire" or "Foul Vampire".[16] This apparently strange name has been cited as an example both of surviving paganism and of the use of nicknames as personal names.[17]
Another early use of the Old Russian word is in the anti-pagan treatise "Word of Saint Grigoriy", dated variously to the 11th–13th centuries, where pagan worship of upyri is reported.[18][19]
Folk beliefs
The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia; cultures such as the Mesopotamians, Hebrews, Ancient Greeks, and Romans had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires. However, despite the occurrence of vampire-like creatures in these ancient civilizations, the folklore for the entity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early 18th century Southeastern Europe,[1] when verbal traditions of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published. In most cases, vampires are revenants of evil beings, suicide victims, or witches, but they can also be created by a malevolent spirit possessing a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire. Belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires.
It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, though there are several elements common to many European legends. Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance, and ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour; these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinking of blood. Indeed, blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin and its left eye was often open.[21] It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth, hair, and nails may have grown somewhat, though in general fangs were not a feature.[22]
Other attributes varied greatly from culture to culture; some vampires, such as those found in Transylvanian tales, were gaunt, pale, and had long fingernails, while those from Bulgaria only had one nostril,[23] and Bavarian vampires slept with thumbs crossed and one eye open.[24] Moravian vampires only attacked while naked, and those of Albanian folklore wore high-heeled shoes.[24] As stories of vampires spread throughout the globe to the Americas and elsewhere, so did the varied and sometimes bizarre descriptions of them: Mexican vampires had a bare skull instead of a head,[24] Brazilian vampires had furry feet and vampires from the Rocky Mountains only sucked blood with their noses and from the victim's ears.[24] Common attributes were sometimes described, such as red hair.[24] Some were reported to be able to transform into bats, rats, dogs, wolves, spiders and even moths.[25] From these various legends, works of literature such as Bram Stoker's Dracula, and the influences of historical bloodthirsty figures such as Gilles de Rais, Elizabeth Bathory, and Vlad Ţepeş, the vampire developed into the modern stereotype.[20][24]
Creating vampires
The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore. In Slavic and Chinese traditions, any corpse which was jumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to become one of the undead.[26] A body with a wound which had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk. In Russian folklore, vampires were said to have once been witches or people who had rebelled against the Church while they were alive.[24]
Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent a recently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant. Burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects, such as scythes or sickles,[27] near the grave to satisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise from its coffin. This method resembles the Ancient Greek practice of placing an obolus in the corpse's mouth to pay the toll to cross the River Styx in the underworld; it has been argued that instead, the coin was intended to ward off any evil spirits from entering the body, and this may have influenced later vampire folklore. This tradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about the vrykolakas, in which a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription "Jesus Christ conquers" were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from becoming a vampire.[28] Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the tendons at the knees or placing poppy seeds, millet, or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire; this was intended to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains.[29] Similar Chinese narratives state that if a vampire-like being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain; this is a theme encountered in myths from the Indian subcontinent as well as in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings.[30]
Identifying vampires
Many elaborate rituals were used to identify a vampire. One method of finding a vampire's grave involved leading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on a virgin stallion — the horse would supposedly balk at the grave in question.[24] Generally a black horse was required, though in Albania it should be white.[31] Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism.[32]
Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than expected, plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition.[33] In some cases, when suspected graves were opened, villagers even described the corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face.[34] Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle, sheep, relatives or neighbours. Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor poltergeist-like activity, such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects,[35] and pressing on people in their sleep.
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Short stories: Vampires
It was an exceptionally cold Halloween and I was closing the last set of the Haunted crypt costume party, I was the lead singer of a heavy metal band. At one point in the set I felt a shiver run down my spine and that is when I noticed a dark figure standing motionless in the front row. The glowing white face wasn't what startled me it was Halloween and there were many white faces in the audience. What caught my attention was the strange pull that this figure inflicted on me, I remember once in high school this same confusion when I was on magic mushrooms, but I never even drank a beer before going on stage so I knew that it was this being that was effecting my reality. She was a very beautiful creature indeed and I heard a voice within my head that said "Tonight we will be together" and as the guitar solo ripped into the night I answered her into the microphone "Yes we will". And that was my last night as a mortal.
I never had any illusions about what it would mean to be a vampire, I haven't lived the usual tortured life of most immortals and I quite enjoy this gift that has been given to me. My maker was very old and very strong and so I in turn have become very strong prematurely as many might say. I have met many jealous vampires sometimes a century my senior and to my total amazement when these creatures have attacked me my maker would only watch and smile while I as if an adult fighting a child would easily overpower them. She never kept anything from me and all of my questions she has always answered but one. I remember my first feeding, she took me to a park where despite the time of night people where everywhere. I felt very strange, very thirsty and I wanted nothing more than to drink from my maker but she wanted me to drink from a mortal, to see how I would do this without any direction from her. I turned to ask her how I should do it and when I looked she was nowhere to be seen. I was very startled by a hand grabbing me by the shoulder and as I looked at who it belonged to I saw a sad little man, he was shaking, he had deep sunk in eyes and he smelled horrible. He was mumbling something about rock and shoving his hands with palms upturned at me as if I had something for him. "Not another crackhead" I was thinking to myself when suddenly the repulsion of this dirty little man melted away from me and I saw him as a beautiful and glowing being. I could feel the warmth emanating from his aura and I could smell a sweet aroma which I soon discovered was his blood. Suddenly and violently I grabbed him and bit into his out stretched expecting arm. He began to scream so I reached up and covered his face with my hand. I didn't realize that I was suffocating him, I didn't realize that he was dying, I only heard a very fast beating that was slowing down as his will to resist me faded. I drew the blood as warm loving vibrations filled my entire being and I just wanted to drink, to drink forever. A sudden and powerful blow tossed me fifteen feet and I landed beneath a swing set. I felt myself being lifted then we where both suddenly in an alley and my maker was slapping my hand as if scorning a child. "You must never drink until death" she said, "You didn't even have to kill him at all". That is when she told me that many vampires drain their victims causing death. She didn't believe that murder was necessary for me, that I was strong and I didn't really need that much blood. My maker values all forms of life and I haven't killed my prey since.The greatest lesson that I have learned since becoming immortal besides a respect for all forms of life would have to be that you, if mortal or immortal must be happy with who and what you are. You cannot escape who you truly are by becoming something else. I have met many mortals who hate themselves and thought that becoming a vampire would change this self-hatred and ease them of their suffering. Yet after the transition they soon discover that they hate themselves even more now. So I say this to you love yourself because you all even if you don't realize it are unconditionally loved and you always will be.
It was an exceptionally cold Halloween and I was closing the last set of the Haunted crypt costume party, I was the lead singer of a heavy metal band. At one point in the set I felt a shiver run down my spine and that is when I noticed a dark figure standing motionless in the front row. The glowing white face wasn't what startled me it was Halloween and there were many white faces in the audience. What caught my attention was the strange pull that this figure inflicted on me, I remember once in high school this same confusion when I was on magic mushrooms, but I never even drank a beer before going on stage so I knew that it was this being that was effecting my reality. She was a very beautiful creature indeed and I heard a voice within my head that said "Tonight we will be together" and as the guitar solo ripped into the night I answered her into the microphone "Yes we will". And that was my last night as a mortal.
I never had any illusions about what it would mean to be a vampire, I haven't lived the usual tortured life of most immortals and I quite enjoy this gift that has been given to me. My maker was very old and very strong and so I in turn have become very strong prematurely as many might say. I have met many jealous vampires sometimes a century my senior and to my total amazement when these creatures have attacked me my maker would only watch and smile while I as if an adult fighting a child would easily overpower them. She never kept anything from me and all of my questions she has always answered but one. I remember my first feeding, she took me to a park where despite the time of night people where everywhere. I felt very strange, very thirsty and I wanted nothing more than to drink from my maker but she wanted me to drink from a mortal, to see how I would do this without any direction from her. I turned to ask her how I should do it and when I looked she was nowhere to be seen. I was very startled by a hand grabbing me by the shoulder and as I looked at who it belonged to I saw a sad little man, he was shaking, he had deep sunk in eyes and he smelled horrible. He was mumbling something about rock and shoving his hands with palms upturned at me as if I had something for him. "Not another crackhead" I was thinking to myself when suddenly the repulsion of this dirty little man melted away from me and I saw him as a beautiful and glowing being. I could feel the warmth emanating from his aura and I could smell a sweet aroma which I soon discovered was his blood. Suddenly and violently I grabbed him and bit into his out stretched expecting arm. He began to scream so I reached up and covered his face with my hand. I didn't realize that I was suffocating him, I didn't realize that he was dying, I only heard a very fast beating that was slowing down as his will to resist me faded. I drew the blood as warm loving vibrations filled my entire being and I just wanted to drink, to drink forever. A sudden and powerful blow tossed me fifteen feet and I landed beneath a swing set. I felt myself being lifted then we where both suddenly in an alley and my maker was slapping my hand as if scorning a child. "You must never drink until death" she said, "You didn't even have to kill him at all". That is when she told me that many vampires drain their victims causing death. She didn't believe that murder was necessary for me, that I was strong and I didn't really need that much blood. My maker values all forms of life and I haven't killed my prey since.The greatest lesson that I have learned since becoming immortal besides a respect for all forms of life would have to be that you, if mortal or immortal must be happy with who and what you are. You cannot escape who you truly are by becoming something else. I have met many mortals who hate themselves and thought that becoming a vampire would change this self-hatred and ease them of their suffering. Yet after the transition they soon discover that they hate themselves even more now. So I say this to you love yourself because you all even if you don't realize it are unconditionally loved and you always will be.
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